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Alternatively, although less likely, the Sanskrit source text for the Tibetan translation could have been nearly identical to Kumārajīva’s source text.
Both the Stok manuscript (Tib. rgya) and the Chinese (印) read “seal” here, whereas the Degé reads “causes” (Tib. rgyu).
The expression “evil world of the five degenerations” (Tib. rnyog pa lnga’i ’jig rten ngan pa) is a rare, literal translation of the Chinese, 五濁惡世, which in turn translates the Sanskrit pañcakaṣāyaloka. This is further evidence that the Tibetan was translated from Chinese.
Meaning that when one takes a raft across a river, one need not carry the raft beyond the bank; it has served its purpose.
Kumārajīva’s Chinese translation of this sentence, as it appears in Taishō 482, seems to present a quotation: “Noble children, as explained in the discourses, ‘Monks, if those who want to know my Dharma are to discard even the Dharma as they would a raft, what need is there to mention what is non-Dharma?’ ” (諸善男子。如經中説。汝等比丘。若知我法如栰喩者。法尚應捨。何況非法。). Although the parable of the teachings being like a raft that must be discarded once it has served its purpose is well-known throughout Buddhist literature, we have been unable to locate this precise statement in other scriptures.
Translated based on the Chinese: 若邪見者則爲妄見。是人不名爲眞見。. Degé reads: gang log par mthong ba de ni yang dag pa ma yin pa mthong ba ste gang zag de ni yang dag pa nyid mthong ba zhes bya’o.
Translated based on the Chinese: 夢中色相無有決定。但以憶想故有。色陰相亦如是。從先世業因縁出。無有決定性。. Degé reads: ri dang / chu dang / nags tshal la sogs par mthong ste / de ltar rmi lam gyis gzugs kyi mtshan ma de la nges par chad pa med de rnam par brtags pa’i ’du shes las gzugs kyi phung po’i mtshan mar skyed pa yang de bzhin te / sngon gyi las kyi rgyu dang rkyen las skyes te nges pa’i rang bzhin can ma yin no.
Translated based on the Chinese: 是菩薩爾時不滅色亦不求滅色法。. Degé reads: de ltar byang chub sems dpa’ de’i tshe gzugs mi ’gag gzugs ’gags pa’i chos tshol lo.
Here “the five classes of beings” translates the Tibetan lam rgyud lnga. R. A. Stein (2010) suggests that lam rgyud lnga, or lam lnga, is a Tibetan rendering of the Chinese 五道. In fact, lam rgyud lnga appears almost exclusively in texts that are openly avowed to be translations from Chinese. This is perhaps the most compelling evidence to suggest a Chinese source text.
Translated based on the Chinese: 亦不分別想陰滅。但爲滅一切想受陰故。亦住如實知見故。. Degé reads: ’du shes kyi phung po dgag par rnam par mi rtog pa ni ’du shes kyi tshor ba thams cad dgag pa’i phyir yang dag pa ji lta ba bzhin shes shing mthong la gnas na’i phyir ro.
“Mind, mentality, and consciousness” here respectively translate sems (Skt. citta), yid (Skt. manas), and rnam par shes pa (Skt. vijñāna).
Translation of this sentence is tentative. This interpretive rendering is based on a comparison of the Tibetan and the Chinese. The Chinese reads: 分別虚妄事故。以一相故。以決定相故。能得是心是意是識。能得分別愛著。. Degé reads: rnam par rtog pa’i yang dag pa ma yin pa’i dngos po’i phyir / mtshan nyid gcig pa’i phyir / nges pa’i mtshan nyid gcig pa’i phyir sems de dang / yid dang / rnam par shes pa de thob cing chags pa rnam par ’byed pa la mkhas pa thob par ’gyur ro. Interestingly, the Chinese 分別 maps throughout the translation to both the Tibetan rnam par ’byed pa and rnam par rtog pa; and according to the online Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (www.buddhism-dict.net/ddb/), it is a possible translation of both the Sanskrit vibhaj and cognates like vibhāga, as well as vikalpa/saṃkalpa or even just kalpa. 能, for its part, typically lends an “agential” sense to its attached verb in the Chinese, so it could remain untranslated in Tibetan, but it can also be a translation of the Sanskrit terms kuśala, paṇḍita, and pravīṇa, all of which mkhas pa also renders. Perhaps this is a translation error from Chinese to Tibetan, possibly with an extra scribal “correction” added later due to misunderstanding, which would account for why the “childish ordinary people” would “attain skill in discerning attachment,” a concept that hardly makes sense in this context.
Tibetan: ’khrul ’khor gyi mi; Chinese: 機關木人。. This Tibetan term appears only in Kangyur texts that were translated from Chinese.
Translated according to the Chinese (壞) and other Tibetan variants instead of Degé, which reads: ’jog.
Translated according to the Stok, which reads: gzugs med pa’i khams kyi lha’i nye bar len, and the Chinese, which also includes the word for “gods/devas” 諸天. Degé reads: gzugs med pa’i khams kyi nye bar len.
Translation informed by the Chinese: …故。諸佛如來作如是分別説。. Degé does not show this sentence as explicitly introducing the following paragraph. A variant reading in the Chinese is missing 説. It reads, “the thus-gone buddhas analyzed as follows.”
Tentative translation. The Tibetan reads: nges par gcad pa (Skt. nirlūna). The Chinese reads 決定說五陰相, “speak/teach with certainty about the marks of the five aggregates,” or “speak about the marks of five aggregates as real.” Given the parallelism with the phrase below, which reads in Tibetan nges par/nges pa’i ’chad pa, and thus closely reflects the Chinese, the Tibetan nges par gcad pa is most likely a corruption of the former.
Tib. sman pa read as smon pa according to Urga edition of the Kangyur, which accords with the Chinese: 所願.
Translated in part according to the Chinese 離意性則無意。意性不能知意。假名字故説爲意性。. Degé reads: yid kyi khams las gud na yid dang yid kyi khams zhes ba ba med / yid du mi shes kyang bla dags su yid kyi khams zhes btags so.
According to Yongle, Kangxi, Narthang, Lhasa, and Stok: …rang bzhin med pas rang bzhin nyid. This also reflects the Chinese: 法性無自性。自性不可得。. Degé reads: …rang bzhin nyid dmigs su med de.
Both “element” and “realm” here translate the same term (Skt. dhātu; Tib. khams), albeit used in different contexts.
Here the Tibetan text includes a negation (Tib. ma), which we have not translated based on the previous occurrences of this sentence in which the negation is absent.
Read according to Stok: chos zhes bya ba med na and Chinese, which analogously reads: 若法無者。.
Glossed with the help of the Chinese: 不得自在不得隨意。作是不作是。. Degé reads: gzhan ma yin / dbang med pa / ’dir rang nyams byar med pa / byas pa’o nyam du sems so.
Read according to the Chinese: 念念生滅相續不斷故. Degé: skad cig skad cig gis sky zhing ’gog pa gcig gis bsags pa rgyun mi ’chad pas sems zhes bya ste.
Read according to the Chinese: 客塵煩惱染故有分別。. Degé: blo bur gyi nyon mongs pas kun nas nyon mongs pa rnam par rtog kyang.
Read according to the Chinese: 菩薩見知心清淨相。亦知衆生心清淨相。作是念。心垢故衆生垢。心淨故衆生淨。. Degé: byang chub sems dpa’ rnams bdag gi sems rnam par dag pa nyid du shes shing mthong bas sems can dag gi sems kyang rnam par dag par shes te snyam du sems so / sems dri ma yod pas na / sems rnam par dag pas na sems can yang rnam par dag pa’o.
Read according to the Chinese: 所謂是諸法屬是人。諸法本體於諸法中無諸法。. Degé: ’di lta ste / chos thams cad gang zag dbang po zhes bya ba dang chos kyi ngo bo nyid ces bya ba ni chos thams cad chos zhes ba med de.
Read according to the Chinese: 見一切法盡滅相寂滅相。. Degé: des chos thams cad kyi mi ’gog pa zad pa’i mtshan nyid dang rab tu zhi ba’i mtshan nyid kyang mthong ngo. As such, the Tibetan translation splits 盡滅 into ’gog pa and zad pa, though curiously it includes a negative mi prefix before the two, which clearly contrasts with the Chinese 盡滅相. Also, 盡滅 need not be split, since these two characters taken together in compound can also often mean “extinguished.”
The Chinese would read here: “pure liberation and pure knowledge and experience of liberation”; 解脱清淨。解脱知見清淨。.
Here “bring to mind” translates Tib. dran par byed, which could also be translated “remain mindful of.” The meaning here is that they analyze the nature of such actions in general, rather than observe them unfold in the present.
Read according to Stok: ting nge ’dzin las dka’ ba’m chung ba med par ’dod pa bzhin du, and the Chinese: 於諸定中不以爲難不以爲少。隨意所欲。.
This term (Tib. dbang po, Skt. indriya) has many uses and connotations, and can refer to the god Indra or someone who is similarly dominant in a particular arena. Thus the word conveys a sense of power and leadership.
Tib. mkhas pa’i read as mkhas pas according to Yongle and Kangxi. Parsed according to the Chinese.
Read according to the Chinese: 云何名爲正見。一切法寂滅。念相不生不滅同於涅槃。. Degé: de la ji ltar na yang dag par lta bas chos thams cad rab tu zhi ba dang / rang bzhin gyis mi skye mi ’gog cing mya ngan las ’das pa dang ’thun pa gang zhe na.
Read according to the Chinese: 如是亦不念不分別是一切法。不念不分別不現在前。. Degé: ’di ltar mi rtog pa dang / rnam par mi rtog pa’i chos thams cad la mi rtog rnam par mi rtog mngon sum du byed ma yang ma yin.
Alternately, Stok would read: “The cessation of thought is no thought,” (rnam par rtog pa bcad pa ni rnam par mi rtog pa’o), and the Chinese would read: “The cessation of thought is right thought” (斷分別是正分別。).
For example, according to monastic regulations, monks are permitted thirteen articles of livelihood, which include their robes and basic necessities like a washing rag, razor, and sitting mat.
Read according to the Chinese: 云何為行自墮數中。. Degé: ’du byed cis bya ba ni bgrang ba’i grangs su gtogs.
Read informed by the Chinese: 所謂善觀一切法無量縁。觀一切法無量方便。亦觀無量方便起。. Variant readings provide the following for this phrase: 所謂善觀諸法無量縁。觀一切無量方便。亦觀無量方便起。. This would alternatively read: “It means contemplating the limitless conditions of Dharma teachings, contemplating the skillful application of all the limitless [conditions], and contemplating the emergence of limitless skillful applications. The Tibetan reads: chos thams cad kyi rkyen tshad med pa la rtog pa dang / tshad med pa thams cad kyi rtog pa la sbyor ba dang ldan pa’i sbyor ba’i tshad pa la rtog pa’o/.
In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.
In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.
The capacity to accept or tolerate experiences which ordinary beings cannot tolerate. It is the preparatory step to profound insight into reality. It also refers to the third stage of the path of joining (prayogamārga, sbyor lam). It is also the third transcendent perfection, in which context it has been rendered here as patience.
See “five aggregates for appropriation.”
See “five aggregates for appropriation.”
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, into which beings are born as the karmic fruition of past miserliness. As the term in Sanskrit means “the departed,” they are analogous to the ancestral spirits of Vedic tradition, the pitṛs, who starve without the offerings of descendants. It is also commonly translated as “hungry ghost” or “starving spirit,” as in the Chinese 餓鬼 e gui.
They are sometimes said to reside in the realm of Yama, but are also frequently described as roaming charnel grounds and other inhospitable or frightening places along with piśācas and other such beings. They are particularly known to suffer from great hunger and thirst and the inability to acquire sustenance. Detailed descriptions of their realm and experience, including a list of the thirty-six classes of pretas, can be found in The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma, Toh 287, 2.1281– 2.1482.
See “four applications of mindfulness.”
A term for the apprehension of a subject, an object, and the relationships that exist between subjects and objects. The term might also be translated as “referentiality,” meaning a system based on the existence of referent objects, referent subjects, and the referential relationships that exist between them. As part of their doctrine of “threefold non-apprehension/non-referentiality” (’khor gsum mi dmigs pa), Mahāyāna Buddhists famously assert that all three categories of apprehension lack substantiality.
In some texts, four types of appropriation are listed: of desire (rāga), of view (dṛṣṭi), of rules and observances as paramount (śīlavrataparāmarśa), and of belief in a self (ātmavāda). The term nye bar len pa also means “grasping” and it was rendered as such when it refers to the ninth of the twelve links of dependent origination, between craving and becoming.
A buddha from the past.
An optional set of thirteen practices that monastics can adopt in order to cultivate greater detachment. They consist of 1) wearing patched robes made from discarded cloth rather than from cloth donated by laypeople; 2) wearing only three robes; 3) going for alms; 4) not omitting any house while on the alms round, rather than begging only at those houses known to provide good food; 5) eating only what can be eaten in one sitting; 6) eating only food received in the alms bowl, rather than more elaborate meals presented to the Saṅgha; 7) refusing more food after indicating one has eaten enough; 8) dwelling in the forest; 9) dwelling at the root of a tree; 10) dwelling in the open air, using only a tent made from one’s robes as shelter; 11) dwelling in a charnel ground; 12) satisfaction with whatever dwelling one has; and 13) sleeping in a sitting position without ever lying down.
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
An old term for Mahāyāna corpus.
The dimension of a buddha that corresponds to relative truth and is perceptible to either ordinary beings (nirmāṇakāya) or sublime beings (saṃbhogakāya).
A king in Royal Mountain of Great Intelligence’s buddha realm.
A pure realm manifested by a buddha or advanced bodhisattva through the power of their great merit and aspirations.
This term refers to composite objects in the generic sense. In other contexts, it can also refer to “formations.”
The third link of dependent origination, the fifth of the five aggregates. In most Abhidharma accounts it comprises the six sensory consciousnesses (eye, ear, nose, taste, body, and mind), but in Yogācāra theory two more kinds of consciousness, afflicted (kliṣṭamanas) and storehouse (ālayavijñāna), are added. For the sixth consciousness, see also “mind consciousness.”
The ultimate meaning of a given Dharma teaching.
In Buddhist cosmology, it is our sphere of existence where beings are driven primarily by the urge for sense gratification.
Usually this term refers to a statement, or spell, meant to protect or bring about a particular result. Here however, the term also has the meaning of “recall” or “memory.”
The term “dharma” (chos) conveys ten different meanings, according to Vasubandhu’s Vyākhyāyukti. It may mean the Buddhist teachings, the awakened qualities which buddhas and bodhisattvas acquire, phenomena or things in general, etc. In the context of this work, it was rendered as “Dharma” when it refers to the teachings, and in other contexts, rendered according to the specific meaning, namely as phenomena and qualities. See also i.4.
One of the subdivisions in the collection of dharmas that constitutes a Buddha, variously explained but usually more closely related to the aspect of ultimate truth.
A teaching or spiritual method by which the Dharma is understood.
One of the most reknowned of former buddhas.
One way of describing experience and the world in terms of eighteen elements (eye, form, and eye consciousness; ear, sound, and ear consciousness; nose, odor, and nose consciousness; tongue, taste, and tongue consciousness; body, touch, and body consciousness; mind, mental phenomena, and mind consciousness).
Correct view, thought, speech, actions, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and absorption. These eight are part of the thirty-seven factors of awakening.
See “eighteen elements.”
The set of practices that lead to awakening, traditionally listed as thirty-seven.
The seventh link of dependent origination. The second of the five aggregates.
See “five aggregates for appropriation.”
The five aggregates (skandha) of form, feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness. On the individual level the five aggregates refer to the basis upon which the mistaken idea of a self is projected. They are referred to as the “bases for appropriation” (upādāna) insofar as all conceptual grasping arises on the basis of these aggregates.
The five degenerations are: (1) degeneration of life span, (2) degeneration of views, (3) degeneration of the afflictions (4) degeneration of beings, and (5) the degeneration of the era.
Longing for desires (kāmacchanda), malice (vyāpāda), sloth and torpor (styānamiddha), excitement and remorse (auddhatyakaukṛtya), and doubt (vicikitsā).
Faith, diligence, mindfulness, absorption, and insight. These are the same as the five strengths at a lesser stage of development. See also n.64.
Faith, diligence, mindfulness, absorption, and insight. These are the same as the five powers, at a further stage of development.
The first of the five aggregates. The third of the eighteen elements.
In Buddhist cosmology, the sphere of existence one level more subtle than our own (the desire realm), where beings, though subtly embodied, are not driven primarily by the urge for sense gratification.
Fourth of the five aggregates, second of the twelve links of dependent origination, and in the context of the aggregates sometimes also called “volitions,” “volitional formations,” or “compositional factors,” these are complex propensities that bring about action.
In Buddhist cosmology, the sphere of existence two levels more subtle than our own (the desire realm), where beings are no longer physically embodied, and thus not subject to the sufferings that physical embodiment brings.
Four contemplations on: (1) the body, (2) feelings, (3) mind, and (4) mental objects. These four contemplations are part of the thirty-seven factors of awakening.
The four progressive levels of concentration of the form realm that culminate in pure one-pointedness of mind, and are a requirement for cultivation of the five or six superknowledges, and so on. These are part of the nine gradual attainments.
Four types of effort consisting in abandoning existing negative mind states, abandoning the production of such states, giving rise to virtuous mind states that are not yet produced, and letting those states continue.
The four foundations or bases of miraculous power are: determination, discernment, diligence, and absorption. These are among the thirty-seven factors of awakening.
The four “main” or “great” outer elements of earth, water, fire, air, and (when there is a fifth) space.
This refers to the four confidences or fearlessnesses of the Buddha: confidence in having attained realization, confidence in having attained elimination, confidence in teaching the Dharma, and confidence in teaching the path of aspiration to liberation.
A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”
In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.
’phags pa ’jig rten ’dzin gyis yongs su dris pa zhes bya ba’i mdo (Āryālokadharaparipṛcchānāmasūtra). Toh 174, Degé Kangyur vol. 60 (mdo sde, ma), folios 7b.4–78b.7.
’phags pa ’jig rten ’dzin gyis yongs su dris pa zhes bya ba’i mdo. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–2009, vol. 60, pp. 22–206.
’phags pa ’jig rten ’dzin gyis yongs su dris pa zhes bya ba’i mdo (Āryālokadharaparipṛcchānāmasūtra). In bka’ ’gyur (stog pho brang bris ma). Vol. 72 (mdo sde, zha), folios 1r–110v.
Chang, Cornelius P. “A Re-evaluation of the Development of Hsing-su Style in the Fourth Century AD.” National Palace Museum Quarterly, 11/2 (Winter 1976): 19–44.
Digital Dictionary of Buddhism. http://www.buddhism-dict.net/ddb/.
Herrmann-Pfandt, Adelheid. Die lHan kar ma: ein früher Katalog der ins Tibetische übersetzten buddhistischen Texte. Wien: Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2008.
Lokadharaparipṛcchā; Chishi jing 持世經 (Taishō 482). Translated by Kumārajīva. In Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō 大正新脩大藏經, ed. Junjirō Takakusu, Kaikyoku Watanabe, 100 vols., Tokyo: Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō Kankōkai, 1924–34.
Stein, R. A. “The Two Vocabularies of Indo-Tibetan and Sino-Tibetan Translations in the Dunhuang Manuscripts.” In Rolf Stein’s Tibetica Antiqua with Additional Materials, trans. and ed. Arthur P. McKeown. Leiden: Brill, 2010, pp. 1–96.
In The Inquiry of Lokadhara, the bodhisattva Lokadhara asks the Buddha to explain the proper way for bodhisattvas to discern the characteristics of phenomena and employ that knowledge to attain awakening. In reply, the Buddha teaches at length how to understand the lack of inherent existence of phenomena. As part of the teaching, the Buddha explains in detail the nonexistence of the aggregates, the elements, the sense sources, dependently originated phenomena, the four applications of mindfulness, the five powers, the eightfold path of the noble ones, and mundane and transcendent phenomena, as well as conditioned and unconditioned phenomena.
The sūtra was translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the guidance of Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche. The translation from the Tibetan was produced by Timothy Hinkle. Andreas Doctor checked the translation against the Tibetan, edited the text, and wrote the introduction. James Gentry subsequently compared the translation against Kumārajīva’s Chinese translation and made further edits.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The Inquiry of Lokadhara is a scripture that belongs to the general sūtra section of the Degé Kangyur. As far as we are aware, no Sanskrit version of this text remains. However, in addition to the Tibetan translation, which we have translated here, the sūtra is also present in two Chinese translations (Taishō 481 and Taishō 482). The first of these was translated by Dharmarakṣa (233–311
For this translation, we took as our basis the Tibetan Degé xylograph version and compared it to the Stok Palace manuscript and the variant readings recorded in the Comparative Edition (Tib. dpe bsdur ma). Furthermore, we compared the Tibetan with the Chinese translations. This comparison revealed strong affinities between the Tibetan translation and the Chinese translations, specifically that of Kumārajīva. Indeed, the similarities in structure and content between the Tibetan translation and Kumārajīva’s translation (Taishō 482) are so striking that this Chinese translation, or a related copy thereof, was likely the source text for the Tibetan. The minor variations between it and the Tibetan can mostly be attributed to the several centuries of editorial work that both the source text and the target text underwent since the time of the translation. There are also further indications that this text was translated into Tibetan from the Chinese. For example, the recensions in the Yongle Peking, Lithang, Kangxi Peking, Narthang, and Choné Kangyurs are all missing a Sanskrit title, which is otherwise a customary element for texts translated from Sanskrit. Only the Stok Palace and Degé Kangyurs include a Sanskrit title, but this might have been back-translated from the Tibetan and subsequently included by later editors. This and the absence of a translation colophon (another prevalent feature of some of the Tibetan translations from Chinese) suggest that the history of the text might be traced to China.
In comparing the Tibetan to Kumārajīva’s Chinese translation as it appears in Taishō 482, we did not note all minor differences. Rather, we edited the translation in favor of the Chinese wherever it was obvious (or could reasonably be argued) that the Tibetan was an unclear attempt at rendering the Chinese, or was once a clearer rendering prior to subsequent editorial interventions. In cases that were less clear to us, but where the Chinese provided a better reading, we generally adopted the Chinese reading and recorded the Tibetan in annotations.
Despite the obscurity of the textual history of this sūtra and its infrequent mention in classical and modern writings, the teachings presented herein are certain to be of value to those interested in the world view of the Great Vehicle. Whereas in some sūtras a great number of miracles and visitations from celestial bodhisattvas occur as part of the teaching, this sūtra consists of a lengthy discourse by the Buddha centered on a presentation of traditional Abhidharma categories from the perspective of the Great Vehicle. Unlike the classical presentation of Buddhist ontology, however, this teaching is not concerned with the relative nature and categorization of phenomena, but rather with the inherent emptiness of the categories described and their ultimate lack of inherent existence. In this way, the sūtra presents the topic of metaphysics from a distinctly Great Vehicle perspective that distances itself from traditional Buddhist dharma theory. Rather than emphasizing the unique characteristics and properties of phenomena, the Buddha unifies them all within the single category of emptiness. Throughout the text the terms Dharma and phenomena are translations of the same Tibetan term chos (Skt. dharma), which carries both of these meanings in addition to several other meanings that are also implied in this text, such as “awakened qualities,” “truths,” and “trainings.” This text, like much of Buddhist literature in fact, plays repeatedly with the multivalence of dharma (s) to impart a sense of the circularity and mutual implications of the “truths” that buddhas realize about the nature of “phenomena,” the “qualities” achieved through this realization, the “teachings” they give to enable others to realize it, and the “trainings” that these teachings stipulate, leading back, once again, to the discovery of such “truths.” In this regard it is also helpful to keep in mind that the dharmas in Abhidharma theory represent the “bare facts” or ontological building blocks of existence—phenomena the existence of which this text heavily critiques and questions.
Over the course of the sūtra, which is divided into twelve chapters, the Buddha presents the following topics: the five aggregates, the eighteen elements, the twelve sense sources, the twelve links of dependent origination, the four applications of mindfulness, the five powers, the eightfold path of the noble ones, the phenomena of the world and transcendence, and conditioned and unconditioned phenomena. These subjects provide an important explanatory framework for the functioning of existence and the path to awakening from the Abhidharma point of view. Although some explanation of each topic is given, the sūtra clearly assumes the reader’s familiarity with Abhidharma theory. Moreover, rather than offering a traditional explanation of these topics, the Buddha consistently explains their lack of identifying marks (Skt. animitta), meaning that despite their conventional designations, the phenomena in question do not in actuality have any true or real referents. The Buddha states that these topics are normally taught purely for the expedient purpose of guiding childish ordinary beings (i.e., not the followers of the Great Vehicle) along the path; however, on the ultimate level, the individual characteristics that these phenomena seem to possess due to the interdependent process of causation cannot be found. These subjects are taught merely to provide students with useful classifications that ultimately must lead them beyond such ontological categories. By contrast, this sūtra’s theme is the absence of marks of all phenomena, one of the three gateways of liberation, which also include emptiness and the absence of wishes. As such, the sūtra represents a clear critique of the traditional vehicle of the hearers and a forceful affirmation of the superiority of the perspective of the Great Vehicle.
[B1] Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was staying at the Kalandakanivāpa in Veṇuvana near Rājagṛha, with a great saṅgha of monks. The Blessed One was teaching the Dharma to a large assembly with hundreds of thousands of beings in attendance. Present in the assembly was the bodhisattva great being Lokadhara. It was his wish that bodhisattva great beings develop the mind of awakening by adorning themselves with immeasurable virtues; that they understand in its entirety the true meaning of all phenomena; that they understand how limitless aspirations lead to the perfection of limitless ornaments; that they comprehend and understand the true characteristics of limitless phenomena; that they purify their motivation through limitless aspirations; that they gain comprehensive knowledge; that they attain the ornament of generosity and the purity of certainty; that they perfect the ornament of discipline and patience; that they purify the attitude of mildness and gentleness; that they understand the purity of diligence; that they understand and comprehend the perfections of concentration and insight; and that they develop limitless other such virtues.
Therefore, he stood up, draped his shawl over one shoulder, and knelt on his right knee. With his palms together he bowed toward the Blessed One and said, “Blessed One, may I inquire, in order to bring benefit and happiness to many people; in order that bodhisattva great beings will not discontinue the Buddha’s lineage; in order that their discipline will be without attachment and pure in all activities; in order that they will apply themselves to the great Dharma; and in order that bodhisattvas will become knowledgeable in upholding the immeasurable domains of the Dharma of noble beings. Blessed One, how do bodhisattva great beings become knowledgeable concerning the true characteristics of phenomena? How do they become skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena? How do they acquire the power of mindfulness? How do they acquire the insight of knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena? Once they have relinquished this body, how do they sustain unbroken mindfulness until they attain unsurpassed and perfect awakening?”
The Blessed One responded to the bodhisattva Lokadhara, “Excellent, excellent! Lokadhara, it is excellent that you have asked the Thus-Gone One about these subjects on behalf of bodhisattva great beings. The merit you have gained from asking questions—in order to bring benefit and happiness to many people, out of love for the world, for the sake of the benefit and happiness of the world and its gods, and to illuminate the bodhisattvas of the present and future with great light—is boundless.
“As for your having asked the Thus-Gone One about these subjects, it is excellent that you have thought to inquire of the Thus-Gone One in order to eliminate beings’ doubts; illuminate and protect all beings; teach beings beneficial subjects; free beings from treacherous paths; serve as the support, base, protection, and refuge of many beings; extract and remove them from the three lower realms; establish beings on the unsurpassed path; liberate many beings from the anguish of birth, aging, sickness, death, distress, lamentation, pain, and anxiety; bestow the unsurpassed happiness of nirvāṇa upon beings; protect and guard the sublime Dharma in the future; and liberate beings during the dark times of destruction in the future. Therefore, Lokadhara, listen well and commit this to memory, as I will now explain.”
The bodhisattva Lokadhara replied, “Blessed One, I shall do as you ask,” and he listened to the Blessed One.
The Blessed One then said, “Sublime being, I have this to say: Bodhisattva great beings who understand four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? They should achieve perfect mindfulness, achieve unbroken mindfulness, make continuous progress by means of highly refined insight, and always remain mindful. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand these four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand an alternate set of four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? They should understand well the definitive meaning of phenomena, understand well the meaning of phenomena, understand well the various causes and conditions of phenomena, and enter the true gateway of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand an alternate set of four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? They should understand well the characteristics of limitless phenomena, become highly skilled in cultivating limitless definitive phenomena, exponentially increase engagement in limitless virtues, and understand and perceive the characteristic of arising and ceasing of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand an alternate set of four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? They should assiduously attend to unsurpassed and perfect awakening, swiftly perfect the factors of awakening, avoid being led astray by others by being highly skilled with regard to the expedient means of phenomena, and become highly skilled in all forms of wisdom and insight. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who see these four subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who possess an alternate set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? Seeking to bring beings benefit and happiness by having a mind that is unstained by stinginess, always keeping pure discipline, being unceasing in their diligent conduct by being steadfast in the perfection of diligence, and applying themselves to the perfection of insight with correct mental engagement.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? Having abundant and pure aspirations, having abundant and pure diligent conduct, being steadfast in the virtue of patience that is forgiving, and attaining the understanding that differentiates the true characteristics of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? Pursuing omniscient wisdom with great zeal; generating great zeal by being skilled in discerning concentration, liberation, and absorption; applying themselves to pure conduct in order to attain the mental states of love, compassion, joy, and equanimity; and cultivating the definitive meaning.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? The perfection of the domain of insight, seeking the pure domain of wisdom, zeal for unimpeded wisdom, and never abandoning the aspiration for omniscient wisdom. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have this set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand an alternate set of four subjects will pursue the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Cultivating familiarity with the complete power of mindfulness, experiencing blissful insight, maintaining unbroken mindfulness, and thoroughly cultivating the four applications of mindfulness.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand four subjects will pursue the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Always applying mindfulness with respect to the mind in order to perfect the factors of awakening, having pure insight that employs an acute power of mindfulness to know what was cultivated in previous existences, swiftly attaining unbroken mindfulness, and generating the cause of omniscient wisdom.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand four subjects will pursue the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Cultivating the entirety of contemplative methods, cultivating genuine wisdom and insight, generating tremendous diligence in order to attain the qualities of buddhahood, and not forgetting mindfulness in order to attain the strength of unbroken mindfulness. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand these four subjects will pursue the power of mindfulness.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Constant and unbroken diligence aimed at recollecting the highest insight, constant and unbroken focus aimed at achieving the true characteristics of phenomena, constant vigilance aimed at accurately recalling all phenomena, and constant guarding of one’s faculties in order to obtain correct mental engagement.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Maintaining pure discipline, having pure conduct, dispelling the five mental obscurations concerning all forms of conduct while being unattached to worldly phenomena, and discarding the obscurations of action and affliction.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Pursuing virtuous phenomena with an unperturbed mind, cultivating familiarity with the mind’s sole characteristic, having understanding and knowledge of Dharma discourses, and avoiding both householders and renunciates by being uninterested in socializing.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Training under a spiritual friend, constantly applying oneself to the profound Dharma, always being happy to approach buddhas and bodhisattvas, and delighting in supplication and inquiry while being inspired to cultivate insight. Bodhisattva great beings who have these four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being very knowledgeable with regard to the true characteristics of all phenomena, being very knowledgeable with regard to discerning the causes of all phenomena, being knowledgeable with regard to the definitive meaning of all phenomena, and being knowledgeable with regard to the classifications of words and speech related to all phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable with regard to the progressive order of Dharma teachings, being knowledgeable with regard to the means of the dependent origination of all phenomena, having the skillful means to cultivate all Dharma teachings, and being very knowledgeable with regard to discerning both the discourses on the definitive meaning and those on the inferred meaning.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable with regard to distinguishing the path from what is not the path, being able to describe the meaning of any Dharma teaching, swiftly achieving the domain of pure insight, and perfectly cultivating the perfection of wisdom. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have this alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable about cultivating all phenomena characterized by origination, being knowledgeable with regard to the characteristic of cessation related to the causes of all phenomena, being knowledgeable about the characteristic of the conditions related to all phenomena, and being skillful by means of causes and conditions.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable with regard to all the phenomena of suffering, being knowledgeable with regard to all the phenomena of origination, being knowledgeable with regard to all the phenomena of cessation, and being knowledgeable with regard to all the phenomena of cessation and the path.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable with regard to the connection between the formation and destruction of all phenomena; drawing on previous causes to achieve power; being knowledgeable with regard to anything that tames phenomena; and being knowledgeable with regard to discerning letters, syllables, and words.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being very knowledgeable with regard to the discourses of inferred meaning, not becoming caught up in the words of the discourses of definitive meaning, being knowledgeable with regard to the seal of the characteristics of all phenomena, and being steadfast in the wisdom of the absence of marks of all phenomena. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have this alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. What are these four? Knowledge of virtuous and nonvirtuous phenomena, excellent mindfulness and insight, abandonment of the five mental obscurations, and never allowing one’s mindfulness of unsurpassed and perfect awakening to wane.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four additional qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. What are these four? Strong pursuit of the four applications of mindfulness, strong pursuit of discerning insight, placing insight at the forefront of all absorptions, and mastering definitive insight.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. What are these four? Attainment of the dhāraṇī gateways, cultivation of unborn wisdom, understanding the wisdom of exhaustion, and realization of the wisdom of cessation.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. What are these four? Eliminating desire and aversion, being free from attachment to any conditioned phenomenon, realization of unconditioned wisdom, and arriving at the domain of the thus-gone ones. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have these four qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have five types of wisdom strength that purify phenomena will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies motivation, the wisdom strength that purifies aspirations, the wisdom strength that purifies roots of virtue, the wisdom strength that purifies dedication, and the wisdom strength that purifies karmic obscurations.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies conduct, the wisdom strength that purifies mindfulness, the wisdom strength that purifies practice, the wisdom strength that purifies apprehension of sentient beings, and the wisdom strength that purifies apprehension of characteristics.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies a detached attitude, the wisdom strength that purifies bringing benefit and happiness to beings, the wisdom strength that purifies the development of great love, the wisdom strength that purifies the development of great compassion, and the wisdom strength that purifies the development of great joy and equanimity.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies the observance of discipline, the wisdom strength that purifies nonattachment to the observance of discipline, the wisdom strength that purifies patience, the wisdom strength that purifies nonattachment to patience, and the wisdom strength that purifies learnedness.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies higher diligence, the wisdom strength that purifies the acquisition of diligence, the wisdom strength that purifies concentration, the wisdom strength that purifies the means of concentration, and the wisdom strength that purifies the means of tranquility and special insight.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies insight, the wisdom strength that purifies the attainment of erudition, the wisdom strength that purifies the worldly and transcendent, the wisdom strength that purifies insight and means, and the wisdom strength that purifies the conditioned and the unconditioned.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies the understanding of means, the wisdom strength that purifies knowledge and liberation, the wisdom strength that purifies the characteristic of the unborn, the wisdom strength that purifies the singularity of characteristics and the absence of characteristics, and the wisdom strength that purifies the relative and the ultimate. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have these five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. Therefore, Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings must endeavor greatly to cultivate these purificatory wisdom strengths.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have three qualities will endeavor in the purificatory wisdom strength. What are these three? Interest, diligence, and carefulness. Bodhisattva great beings who have these three will endeavor in the wisdom strength that purifies the entirety of virtues. Why is this? Lokadhara, interest, diligence, and carefulness are the roots of all qualities.
“Thus, bodhisattva great beings who apply themselves to the purificatory wisdom strength will swiftly attain omniscient wisdom. They will be called those who do not regress from diligence. They will be called those who do not regress from the Dharma. They will also swiftly attain an exponential growth in those very virtues. They will also swiftly achieve the wisdom strength that purifies all qualities. Lokadhara, any person who achieves the wisdom strength that purifies all qualities in this manner is said to be a field of merit for the world. It is said that this person will consume the offering goods after me. It is said that this person will arrive at the domain of the thus-gone ones. It is said that this person will realize the qualities of the thus-gone ones. Before long, such a person will master the wisdom of the thus-gone ones.
“Lokadhara, many countless immeasurable eons ago, as I was practicing bodhisattva conduct, Buddha Dīpaṅkara prophesied to me, ‘You will fully awaken to buddhahood after countless eons.’ At that very moment, I understood all these purificatory wisdom strengths. Lokadhara, any person who has such purificatory wisdom strength will attain unexcelled, perfect, and complete awakening, just as I have attained it now. Such a person will also turn the wheel of Dharma, just as I do now. That person will roar the lion’s roar, just as I roar it. That person will naturally have power and strength over all phenomena just as I do now. Lokadhara, if you have exerted yourself in the cultivation of this purificatory wisdom strength, you will spontaneously accomplish all wisdom and insight before long.
“Lokadhara, countless immeasurable eons ago, the blessed one known as King of Lofty Wisdom appeared in the world. He was a thus-gone one, a learned and virtuous one, a well-gone one, a knower of the world, an unsurpassed being, a charioteer who guides beings, a teacher of gods and humans, and a blessed buddha. Lokadhara, the blessed one King of Lofty Wisdom had an immeasurable saṅgha of hearers and an immeasurable saṅgha of bodhisattvas. This was due to the causes and conditions of this Blessed One’s past aspirations. Even the words three lower realms were unheard of in the blessed one King of Lofty Wisdom’s buddha realm. No one there had experienced any suffering; all in all, everyone there had such an abundance of happiness and joy that they were mostly free of desire, as the five obscurations were eliminated. These beings had such pure happiness that it was as if they had attained the bliss of the four concentrations. The lifespan of the blessed one King of Lofty Wisdom was one quadrillion eons. The Thus-Gone One acted as the king of the world at that time. As there was no other king, the beings of that realm called the Blessed One their Dharma King. The blessed one King of Lofty Wisdom taught the bodhisattvas a discourse from the Bodhisattva Collection called Countering the Doubts and Pleasing the Minds of All Beings. When five hundred of the bodhisattvas heard this description of the bodhisattvas’ purificatory wisdom strength, they generated such strength of diligence that for the rest of their lives, they did not develop the intent to sit; did not develop notions about clothing; did not develop notions about themselves, other beings, men, or women; and did not eat too much food. Rather, they only exerted themselves in this purificatory wisdom strength. When these five hundred bodhisattvas who had exerted themselves so diligently passed away, they were later born in a buddha realm one hundred thousand buddha realms to the east of here, due to the causes and conditions of their roots of virtue. Once born there, they exerted themselves in this teaching, and before long they remembered their past lives and gained sharp faculties. In that buddha realm is a thus-gone one named King of Immeasurable Stacked Flowers. He is still alive and teaching the Dharma. When they were sixteen years old, these bodhisattvas received ordination in the teachings of the blessed one King of Immeasurable Stacked Flowers. For six hundred thousand years, they practiced pure conduct as youths and exerted themselves in this type of diligence.
“Lokadhara, in that fashion these five hundred bodhisattvas met two hundred thousand thus-gone ones, and by practicing diligence in their presence, gained supreme mindfulness, happiness, and insight. Finally, they met the blessed one King of Lofty and Immeasurable Power, who gave them this prophecy: ‘After ten thousand eons, you will fully awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood.’ Throughout that ten-thousand-eon period, those five hundred bodhisattvas met two thousand buddhas. In this way, they perfected the awakening of the buddhas, until finally, one eon, they fully awakened to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood.
“Lokadhara, therefore one should know that bodhisattvas who want to swiftly attain unsurpassed and perfect awakening ought to develop such interest, diligence, and carefulness regarding the purificatory wisdom strength. Why is this? Lokadhara, interest, diligence, and carefulness, along with the factors of awakening, are the roots of attaining the unsurpassed and perfect awakening of the buddhas—they complete the qualities of buddhahood.
“Lokadhara, as I practiced such diligence, I met with two hundred thousand buddhas, and their teachings enabled me to recall all my past lives. By remembering the circumstances of all my past lives, I eliminated obstacles to the cultivation of this teaching. Never letting my interest, diligence, and carefulness decline, my interest, diligence, and carefulness became continuous.”
The Blessed One then gazed into the four directions with his mind of great love and compassion and displayed the miraculous power of his extraordinary abilities. He emanated buddhas into all the Jambudvīpas of the great trichiliocosm, where they each taught the discourse from the Bodhisattva Collection called Countering the Doubts and Pleasing the Minds of All Beings. Furthermore, through his miraculous ability, the many assemblies in Veṇuvana were able to behold the emanated buddhas filling the Jambudvīpas, each teaching the Dharma, whereby all the assemblies were delighted. They rose from their seats, prostrated to the Buddha, and marveled, “Blessed One, the miraculous ability of the blessed buddhas is unfathomable. The immeasurable and unfathomable Dharma is spontaneously accomplished.”
The Blessed One then addressed the myriad assemblies, “Noble children, the things revealed by the Thus-Gone One are not so remarkable. Why is this? Because the Thus-Gone One understands reality, he can use the power of his miraculous, extraordinary abilities in such a way that the light shining from a single pore of his body can illuminate as many worlds throughout the ten directions as there are grains of sand in the Ganges. Likewise, from a single pore of his body he can make the voice of Dharma heard in all those worlds. Such would not exhaust even a thousandth part of what can be displayed from a single pore. The Thus-Gone One has spontaneously accomplished such unfathomable abilities as these.
“Noble children, the Thus-Gone One teaches beings by employing an understanding of their thoughts. Noble children, there are few beings these days who are inspired to practice this teaching. Noble children, there are few beings these days who diligently endeavor in the practice of this teaching. Noble children, there are few beings these days who carefully practice this teaching. Why is this? There are few beings in such evil times who will practice this teaching. The Thus-Gone One has come to this evil world of the five degenerations: the degeneration of beings, the degeneration of views, the degeneration of lifespans, the degeneration of afflictions, and the degeneration of eons.
“Noble children, if it is rare for someone to even so much as trust in this profound and pure teaching and arrive at the insight of buddhahood, what need we say of being interested in the domain of the thus-gone ones? Noble children, my motivation for adorning myself with such aspirations and practicing such diligence and patience for so long has been to help those suffering beings who are without protector or refuge and who fall into the lower realms. Once I fully awakened, I ensured the benefit and welfare of countless, immeasurable beings. Noble children, therefore, through the grace of the Thus-Gone One’s earlier pure aspirations and diligence, countless, immeasurable beings now have faith and trust in such a profound teaching as this and embrace it. Noble children, beings that I have previously trained trust my teachings. Noble children, few beings have been made to trust such a profound teaching as this through the ten strengths and the four types of fearlessness of the blessed buddhas. All beings who observe this teaching do so through the means and power of the thus-gone ones’ intent. Long have I never been apart from this profound Dharma. That is why I care for and never abandon beings out of great love, great compassion, great joy, and great equanimity. There are few thus-gone ones who benefit beings in a vile world of the five degenerations. Why is this?
“Noble children, having earlier benefitted beings with the force of great diligence and the power of great skill, I gathered the accumulations leading to unsurpassed and perfect awakening. Noble children, I recall that in the past, I offered up and gave away a thousand bodies in a single day. Noble children, earlier, throughout thousands of lifetimes, when I saw beings suffering from hunger and thirst, I would cut flesh from my body, cook it, and give it to them—yet even then my mind felt no trouble or regret; instead, a great and universal love for all beings arose in me. Noble children, understand that in this fashion, through benefitting beings with the strength of great diligence and skill, one will gather the accumulations leading to unsurpassed and perfect awakening. Therefore, noble children, by earnest practice of interest, diligence, and carefulness, the accumulations leading to unsurpassed and perfect awakening are gathered. Just as I have engaged in bodhisattva conduct, you must also act for the benefit and happiness of beings. Noble children, none of the blessed buddhas who have appeared in this Fortunate Eon have failed to praise me. They declared, ‘The blessed one Śākyamuni engaged in such diligence. The blessed one Śākyamuni developed such diligence. The blessed one Śākyamuni perfected such diligence. By engaging in bodhisattva conduct, the blessed one Śākyamuni thus helped beings. Having appeared in a vile world of degenerations, he thus acted for the benefit and happiness of countless, immeasurable beings.’
“Noble children, those who are inspired to practice such bodhisattva conduct must exert themselves in interest, diligence, and carefulness. Noble children, even though I have fully awakened to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood, my practice of diligence has not waned; I will generate diligence until my parinirvāṇa, when my relics will be reduced to the size of mustard seeds as my body parts are divided, for even that is done for the love and care of future beings. Previously, when I was engaged in bodhisattva conduct, there were some gentle beings who had grown mistaken and errant in their conduct, leading them to descend to difficult states of being. I aroused great compassion in order to free them from those states; therefore my distributed relics, even so small as a mustard seed in size, will display miraculous power. After I reach parinirvāṇa, the minds of those who can be tamed by my relics will be purified. With purified minds, they will reach any states of being to which they aspire.
“Noble children, my spontaneous accomplishment of such compassion for beings, while I was formerly practicing the conduct of a bodhisattva, will cause my relics to be divided and distributed far and wide: this is also due to my previous aspirations. Thus will I protect many beings in vile future times through my immeasurable virtues, causes and conditions of merit, and great compassion. Noble children, I pray that those future bodhisattvas who are joyfully interested, diligent, and careful with regard to this teaching will be sure to read, recite, uphold, and fully teach discourses such as this to others. Through my miraculous power, I bless such bodhisattvas to read, recite, uphold, and fully teach them to others. So that these discourses will be read, recited, upheld, and fully taught, I have entrusted them to such bodhisattvas. Why is that? Noble children, understand that wherever these discourses appear, the Buddha will remain without passing into parinirvāṇa. Therefore, the Thus-Gone One entrusts these discourses to the bodhisattvas. Noble children, you should therefore understand that in the past, I gathered beings without abandoning them by means of such causes and conditions. Presently, I also gather beings without abandoning them. Know that in the future as well, I will gather beings without abandoning them. Having guarded and cared for such discourses, they will flourish extensively in the final five-hundred-year period to come.
“Noble children, both at the present and after I pass into parinirvāṇa, know that if such a discourse is present in a town, city, mountain, forest, or wilderness, and someone retains, receives, reads, recites, teaches, or explains it, the Buddha resides there. Why is this? Through such causes and conditions, I call buddhas the Dharma body. I declare that by seeing the Dharma one sees the Buddha. The Buddha is not to be regarded as a body of form. Those who trust this teaching, and listen to it, trust the Buddha and listen to the Buddha’s teachings. Those who earnestly practice as taught see the Buddha. Such people are said to be proper teachers, Dharma teachers, and followers of the Dharma.
“Noble children, my body is neither Dharma nor non-Dharma; it is described in accordance with the Dharma. Called the most sublime gift of Dharma, it is neither grounded in Dharma nor non-ingrained in Dharma. How is this? If it were rooted in Dharma, seeing my body would not be called seeing the Buddha. Noble children, not being rooted in any phenomenon whatsoever is described as seeing the Buddha. Whoever does not see any phenomenon is described as seeing the Buddha. Why is this? It is inappropriate to describe the Thus-Gone One as Dharma or non-Dharma, or to view him as Dharma. Why is this? Noble children, for the monks who wish to understand my Dharma as found in the discourses, if even the Dharma is to be discarded like a raft, what need we say of non-Dharma? One who is equanimous regarding Dharma and non-Dharma is said to see the Buddha. Why is this? Because the Thus-Gone One is said to be equanimous regarding all phenomena. Not being attached to, or grasping at, the label Dharma, one does not fall into the label Dharma, so what need we say of the label non-Dharma? Noble children, the absence of labels of all phenomena is called the Thus-Gone One. Those who see in this way are said to see the Thus-Gone One. Why is this? Because they are free from seeing any phenomenon, they see the Thus-Gone One. Since all phenomena are beyond apprehension, when one understands and sees all phenomena correctly as they are, this is called seeing the Thus-Gone One. Noble children, the state that does not apprehend any phenomenon is free from all phenomena, is without any thoughts of Dharma or non-Dharma, is free from debate, is free from anything to do, and is indescribable: this is called seeing the Thus-Gone One. Those who see the Dharma in this fashion are said to see the Thus-Gone One.
“Those who see the Thus-Gone One in this fashion see accurately. Those who see differently from this see mistakenly. Whoever sees mistakenly thus sees falsely; such people are not said to see correctly. Noble children, seeing true reality is the cessation of all modes of words and statements. It is neither correct nor incorrect. It neither exists nor is absent. It is free from all phenomena, does not adopt any phenomenon, and does not observe any phenomenon. Seeing like this is seeing the Thus-Gone One. Why is this? Noble children, the Thus-Gone One does not give rise to views regarding phenomena. Thus, seeing the absence of characteristics concerning all phenomena is seeing the Thus-Gone One. Whoever sees in this fashion is said to see accurately.
“Noble children, you should regard the Thus-Gone One in this way. You must analyze the Thus-Gone One just as I have explained. Those who regard the Thus-Gone One like this will understand all phenomena to be the Thus-Gone One. They will attain the suchness of all phenomena, the true reality of all phenomena, and the characteristic falsity of all phenomena. They will come to understand all phenomena to be the qualities of the Thus-Gone One, all phenomena to be the domain of the Thus-Gone One, and all phenomena to be the unfathomable domain.
“Noble children, therefore I have declared that all phenomena are the domain of the Thus-Gone One. The Thus-Gone One’s domain is devoid of a domain. Why is this? There is nothing within the domain of all phenomena to be experienced. Therefore, I have taught that the absence of a domain is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. As the domain of all phenomena is the absence of a domain, that absence of a domain is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Why is this? As the domain of all phenomena does not exist at all, the absence of a domain is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. As all domains are subsumed in the Thus-Gone One’s domain, it is not a domain. Since the Thus-Gone One understands these phenomena, the absence of a domain is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Noble children, those who understand all phenomena as the absence of a domain are people who know the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Such people realize the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Such people seek the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Such people are without attachment to the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Why is this? Such people understand the absence of a domain to be the domain of the Thus-Gone One. They understand the lack of a domain to be the domain of the Thus-Gone One.
“Because all Dharma teachings are beyond observation and investigation, and because they do not remain, they are not a domain. This is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. It is a domain that is subsumed in wisdom, because it does not enter any Dharma teachings. How is this? Because there is no gateway of the Dharma teachings, they are entered through this gateway. Noble children, no Dharma teaching has entry, origination, or form. Why is this? Given that the Thus-Gone One does not observe any Dharma teachings, from where should they appear? Into what should they enter? How could they be shown? How could they ever be taught? Noble children, this is the entry into the gateway of all Dharma teachings, because of their characteristic of being beyond entry. No Dharma teachings come together or part, are bound or liberated. Because in this way there are no gateways with regard to the gateways of all Dharma teachings, such gateways are not gateways of emergence, gateways of entry, gateways of departure, or gateways of expression; ultimately, they are called the unborn gateway. Through this Dharma gateway, no phenomenon is known or seen. This Dharma gateway involves no understanding of, or entry into, Dharma teachings. Why is this?
“Noble children, there are no gateways of Dharma teachings, because gateways cannot be observed. Space is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because it is primordially pure by nature. The absence of discontinuity is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because discontinuity cannot be observed. The absence of limits is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because limits cannot be observed. The absence of measures is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because measures cannot be observed. The absence of bounds is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because bounds cannot be observed. Noble children, if a noble son or daughter enters this Dharma gateway, it is said that they enter the gateway of all Dharma teachings, understand the gateway of all Dharma teachings, and reveal the gateway of all Dharma teachings.”
This was chapter one: “The Introduction.”
The Blessed One then addressed the bodhisattva Lokadhara, “Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who wish to attain the true characteristics of all phenomena, wish to be learned in the characteristics of discerning phenomena, wish to attain the power of recall, wish to attain the insight that discerns all phenomena, or wish to attain unbroken mindfulness from the time they leave this body until reaching unsurpassed and perfect awakening should swiftly enter this Dharma gateway. Through this Dharma gateway, they will attain the light of insight. Why is this? Because this Dharma gateway swiftly ensures that perfection is attained. Furthermore, Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings should exert themselves in this Dharma gateway. Having entered this gateway that pertains to the Dharma, they will become highly skilled in discerning what pertains to the aggregates, elements, sense sources, dependently originated phenomena, the four applications of mindfulness, the five powers, the eightfold path of the noble ones, and mundane and transcendent phenomena. Additionally, they will become highly skilled in discerning what pertains to conditioned and unconditioned phenomena.”
“Lokadhara, how are bodhisattvas skilled in discerning what pertains to the five aggregates? Bodhisattva great beings correctly understand the five aggregates for appropriation in the following way: The aggregates for appropriation are heaps of ignorance. The aggregates for appropriation are heaps of suffering. The aggregates for appropriation are heaps of delusion. The aggregates for appropriation are heaps of sickness, boils, and thorns.
Bodhisattvas should contemplate the discernment of the aggregate for appropriation of form. How then should they contemplate the discernment of the aggregate for appropriation of form? The aggregate for appropriation of form arises from the four great elements, so the aggregate for appropriation of form is actually nothing more than a mere imputation. As the aggregate of form is without intrinsic nature and is simply a gathering of the four great elements, the aggregate of form is a mere imputation. The aggregate of form was not created, is not created, will not be created, and does not arise. The aggregate of form is nothing but a mere imputation, based upon the causes and conditions of past actions and the gathering of the four great elements. Apart from the mere imputation, it is not an aggregate. Such is the aggregate of form. To draw an analogy, it is like the aggregate of space, as it does not have any characteristic of true arising. In what is described as the aggregate of space, no phenomenon whatsoever has arisen. Still, because it has the mere label, it is called the aggregate of space. Childish ordinary beings hold what is false to be true, with their erroneous thoughts about the nonexistent aggregates and their characteristics, such that they cling to notions like ‘I am the five aggregates,’ ‘my five aggregates,’ ‘I am the aggregate of form,’ and ‘my aggregate of form.’ Thereby, in clinging to form, childish ordinary beings think of form as being themselves, something belonging to them, or something existent, perceptible, adoptable, or obtainable. They dwell on and depend upon form, and so they engage in and experience myriad nonvirtuous and evil actions.
“It is inappropriate for us to emulate childish ordinary beings, for we should arouse diligence and earnestly cultivate the factors of awakening. It is appropriate for us to investigate the aggregate of form accurately. When bodhisattvas contemplate the aggregates accurately, they understand them to be like water bubbles. How do they understand them to be like water bubbles? A water bubble does not exist—for it simply occurs due to many conditions and cannot be grasped or held. It is without solidity or a core. For these reasons, water bubbles lack any characteristics of bubbles. Just as the absence of a real bubble can be called a water bubble, so it is with the aggregate of form, for the aggregate of form lacks the characteristics of an aggregate. When bodhisattvas contemplate this, they reflect as follows: ‘Childish ordinary beings fail to understand the unreal nature of form accurately; they do not understand the impermanence of form accurately; and they do not understand the characteristic of form accurately. However, we have entered the correct path, so we shall not cling to unreal forms. Why is this? Form does not have any characteristic to grasp at, for it is just a mere label, lacking any true characteristics. Thus, because form lacks a true characteristic and has no name, it is called form. Furthermore, form has the characteristic of being destructible, yet the wise understand it as lacking marks. We must become skilled in cultivating the practice that form has no marks—we should not cling to the marks of form. If a person clings to the marks of form, they are called one who clings to form. We should become highly skilled in understanding the marks of form. When bodhisattvas understand this accurately, they know how to discern form accurately. At that point, they know that the aggregate of form arises from the imputations of childish ordinary beings. The fact that phenomena arise from imputation means that they are unborn. Since all imputations are rooted in and based on the mistaken and false understanding of childish ordinary beings, beings give rise to such forms and become bound by those forms. Tormented by form, they are pained by suffering and wander throughout saṃsāra. Blinded by ignorance and delusion, they cling to form and cannot let it go; thereby, they regard form as permanent, solid, and having a core. Through this, childish ordinary beings are bound by the fetters of form and wander constantly through the realms of hell beings, animals, anguished spirits, gods, and humans. They relish the experience of form, for they do not consider the many problems inherent in form. We should not emulate childish ordinary beings; rather, we should cultivate discernment regarding what pertains to form.’
“When cultivating discernment of form, one should view form’s nature as being like a dream. In a dream, the forms one sees arise from imputed perceptions, feelings, and concepts, which arouse sights, sounds, feelings, perceptions, and dependent origination. One then perceives these as self and other. One sees them as earth, water, fire, and wind. One sees them as mountains, lakes, forests, and so on. In this fashion, the marks of the forms in a dream do not truly exist; rather, they come about based on imputed perceptions. The marks of the aggregate of form are produced in the same way; they arise from the causes and conditions of previous actions and do not have a defined nature. If bodhisattvas contemplate in this fashion, they will not appropriate form as either I or mine. They will contemplate form accurately. They will accurately understand its characteristic of impermanence and its false and mistaken nature. Beings, however, grasp and cling to this incorrectly observed form and perceive it as I, mine, other, or other’s. When bodhisattvas discern form in this way, they do not observe it as form; they do not see it as having the nature of form; and they do not become attached to impermanent forms. At that time, if they dispel and eliminate all attachment and grasping to form, they will become highly skilled concerning the true characteristics of form; they will understand form’s characteristic of sameness; they will understand form’s characteristic of cessation; they will become skilled concerning form’s characteristic of the path that leads to cessation; they will realize that the aggregate of form does not come from anywhere or go anywhere. When contemplating in this way, they understand that the body and the aggregate of form are born from the ripening of karmic results and imputations, and that they arise from the gathering of the four great elements. The aggregate of physical form is not the self, not another, ownerless, and does not come from anywhere. Having contemplated the aggregate of form in this fashion, they will not grasp or become attached to inner forms, outer forms, past forms, future forms, or present forms, as they understand all aggregates of form in terms of their characteristic of being unborn. These bodhisattvas then neither negate form nor seek a Dharma that negates form. Lokadhara, for these reasons, bodhisattva great beings are called those who engage in the discernment of form.”
“Lokadhara, how do bodhisattva great beings engage in the discernment of the aggregate for appropriation of feeling? Bodhisattvas think: ‘Pleasurable feelings, painful feelings, and feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful arise through dependent origination and are based on causes and conditions. Therefore, if one has understood the characteristic of feeling, there is no feeling there, for it is simply clinging. Such clinging is false and arises from false imputations.’ When bodhisattvas think such, they will also think, ‘Childish ordinary beings, bound by falsely imputed feelings, are tormented by the three types of feeling: pleasurable feelings, painful feelings, and feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful. When childish ordinary beings experience pleasurable feelings, they become bound by the affliction of desire. Because they are afflicted by desire’s secondary afflictions, they engage in various nonvirtuous actions. When they experience unpleasant feelings, they become bound by the affliction of aggression. Because they are afflicted by aggression’s secondary afflictions, they engage in various nonvirtuous actions. When they experience feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful, they become bound by the affliction of ignorance. Because they are afflicted by ignorance’s secondary afflictions, they are not freed from misery, lamentation, and painful torment. We should not emulate childish ordinary beings. Rather we should investigate the true reality of phenomena. We should investigate feeling accurately.’
“Once bodhisattvas have investigated the aggregate of feelings accurately, they will think, ‘The aggregate of feelings is not an aggregate. Feelings arise from false imputation, and they are devoid of action. Feelings arise from the cause of past actions and are experienced based upon conditions in the present moment. Because feelings are naturally empty, they lack the marks of feelings.’ When bodhisattvas contemplate the aggregate of feeling, they see that the aggregate of feelings is like water bubbles that appear and cease without ever truly existing. They arise from the connections between causes and conditions, and they depend on causes and conditions. Hence, they do not remain, even momentarily. As they are not real, they have arisen from the falsehood of imputation. At that time bodhisattvas will think, ‘Ordinary beings are the objects of our loving-kindness. Since they do not understand the aggregate of feelings accurately, they are afflicted by their feelings. They become attached to pleasurable feelings, painful feelings, and feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful. Bound by such feelings, they wander throughout saṃsāra and pass from one body to another in an unbroken stream, because due to afflictive feelings, they do not understand the characteristics of the aggregate of feelings accurately. We should not emulate such childish ordinary beings. Rather, we should accurately investigate the discernment of the aggregate of feelings.’
“When they accurately contemplate the aggregate of feelings, they will realize the aggregate of feelings to be a nonexistent aggregate, a false aggregate, a mistaken aggregate, and a nonabiding aggregate. At that time, they will accurately see the characteristics of the aggregate of feelings to be uncreated and devoid of action. They will not view the aggregate of feelings as having any characteristics of the aggregate of feelings. When contemplating the aggregate of feelings in this fashion, they do not view the aggregate of feelings as existing within or without. They are not attached to feelings being I, and they are not attached to feelings being mine. They thus understand that the aggregate of feelings does not come from anywhere, that it is ownerless, and that it is not brought into being by anything. They know that feelings are mistaken, and that what is labeled the category of the aggregate of feelings manifests as the ripened effect of past actions. They see the aggregate of feelings as the unbroken continuity of engagement in false causes and conditions. At that time, they do not grasp, desire, or cling to the aggregate of feelings of the past; they do not grasp, desire, or cling to the aggregate of feelings of the future; and they do not grasp, desire, or cling to the aggregate of feelings of the present.
“Such people exert themselves in removing the affliction of desire from pleasurable feelings, the affliction of aversion from painful feelings, and the affliction of ignorance from feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful. Then, the mind of desire will not arise when the bodhisattva experiences pleasurable feelings, the mind of aversion will not arise when the bodhisattva experience painful feelings, and the mind of delusion will not arise when the bodhisattva experiences feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful. Lokadhara, for the most part, the mind of desire arises when childish ordinary beings experience pleasurable feelings, the mind of aversion arises when they experience painful feelings, and the mind of delusion arises when they experience feelings that are neither pleasant nor painful. Thereby, childish ordinary beings are blinded by attachment, aversion, and delusion and fail to accurately understand the aggregate of feelings just as it is. Failing to understand the characteristics of attachment, aversion, and delusion, they become attached and cling to attachment, aversion, and delusion as being I, mine, and so forth.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand the aggregate of feelings accurately will not fall under the influence of attachment, aversion, and delusion. Even if attachment, aversion, and delusion should arise, they will immediately dispel them, taking them earnestly onto the genuine path. They diligently practice in order to remove the affliction of attachment from the experience of pleasurable feelings. They diligently practice in order to remove the affliction of aversion from the experience of painful feelings. They diligently practice in order to remove the affliction of delusion from the experience of feelings that are neither pleasant nor painful. Thus, they gain accurate understanding of the three types of feeling. Then, to that extent, as they experience feelings, they do not cling to pleasurable feelings, painful feelings, or feelings that are neither pleasant nor painful. Distancing themselves from them, they become freed from the affliction of attachment, the affliction of aversion, and the affliction of delusion. Then, when feelings occur, they will understand and regard the aggregate of feelings accurately as impermanent. Having gained such understanding, they will disrupt attachment to the aggregate of feelings. Having understood the disrupted aggregate of feelings in this way, they will no longer be afflicted by feelings on the paths of desire and attachment. If bodhisattvas understand and realize the aggregate of feelings accurately, they will understand the origin of the aggregate of feelings, the cessation of the aggregate of feelings, and the path leading to cessation of the aggregate of feelings. Then they will understand the aggregate of feelings to be characterized as being unborn. Through this characteristic of being unborn, they will understand and realize the aggregate of feelings to be free of marks. Lokadhara, this has been a discussion of how bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of feelings.”
“Lokadhara, how do bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of perception? When bodhisattva great beings accurately contemplate the aggregate of perception, they see that the aggregate of perception arises from error, and that it is false, unreal, unreliable, and has the characteristic of never having being born to begin with. Being discontinuous, they see it as a gathering of causes and conditions, and as having arisen through the power of past actions. They think, ‘The aggregate of perception is a nonaggregate, for the aggregate of perception is a heap of falsehood. The aggregate of perception is a heap of error. The aggregate of perception lacks the marks of the aggregate of perception. It is just a label, like the mirages of summertime. The aggregate of perception is just like an aggregate of mirages. The label perception is imputed due to the perceptions of consciousness.’
“Childish ordinary beings are bound by such false perceptions, which they perceive as pleasure, pain, neither pleasure nor pain, heat, cold, male, female, cycling throughout the five classes of beings, gathering, dispersing, past, present, future, good, bad, existence, and nonexistence. As the perceptions of childish ordinary beings are under the sway of false delusion, and dependent upon causes and conditions, the aggregate of perception is a mere imputation. There are no so-called perceptions either internally or externally. Bound by their false perceptions, childish ordinary beings perceive in terms of attachment, aversion, and delusion. They perceive children and wives. Childish ordinary beings rely on the aggregate of perception and are attached to their false paths. Therefore, they circle throughout saṃsāra due to the aggregate of perception. They fail to understand accurately that the aggregate of perception is false. Childish ordinary beings perceive in terms of self and other. Perceiving male and female, they are bound by the aggregate of perception and are thus not liberated. They grasp and cling to the aggregate of perception as being I or mine. We should not emulate childish ordinary beings.’
“When bodhisattva great beings accurately contemplate the aggregate of perception in this way, they will not apprehend the aggregate of perception as the aggregate of perception, just as one will not apprehend an aggregate of mirages as an aggregate of mirages. Bodhisattvas view the aggregate of perception as a mirage; thus, they do not desire, take up, or cling to past aggregates of perception; they do not desire, take up, or cling to future aggregates of perception; and they do not dwell on the present aggregates of perception. They do not conceptualize self and other. They exert themselves in the cessation of the aggregate of perception and understand the path of the aggregate of perception to be unborn. They do not view the aggregate of perception as having any basis for coming or any basis for going. Rather, they view it as something mistaken that arises from the cause of past actions, while being bound by current conditions. The aggregate of perception is a nonexistent aggregate. When they discern and contemplate that the aggregate of perception does not have any basis for coming or any basis for going, they realize the aggregate of perception to be unborn. They will also not conceptualize the cessation of the aggregate of perception; this is because they abide in accurate understanding and knowledge for all the feelings associated with perception to cease. When bodhisattvas accurately contemplate the aggregate of perception, they are free from the aggregate of perception, such that, without dwelling on the path of perception, they adhere to an accurate knowledge and understanding of the aggregate of perception. Without being attached to the aggregate of perception, they accurately discern and contemplate the aggregate of perception. They also accurately understand the origination, cessation, and exhaustion of the aggregate of perception. Lokadhara, this is how bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of perception. As they are free from attachment to the aggregate of perception, they apply themselves to the path, which disrupts attachment to the aggregate of perception.” [B2]
“Lokadhara, how then do bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of formation? Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings realize that the aggregate of formation arises from error and is a mere imputation based on false imputations. At that time, bodhisattvas contemplate how all physical, verbal, and mental formations are unclean, impermanent, painful, empty, and selfless. When contemplating this, they think, ‘The aggregate of formation is a nonaggregate. The aggregate of formation is a heap of suffering. The aggregate of formation is a dependently originated aggregate. The aggregate of formation is a heap of reflections. The aggregate of formation does not increase or decrease; it is not gathered. Given that all physical, verbal, and mental formations are uncreated, the wise do not become attached to or grasp the aggregate of formation. Why is this? Physical formations do not exist within the body, outside it, or in-between. Likewise, verbal and mental formations do not exist within, without, or in-between.
“ ‘The aggregate of formation lacks the characteristics of the aggregate of formation. Why is this? The aggregate of formation arises from many causes and conditions, mistaken perceptions, false perceptions, and the ripening of the effects of past actions. Formations are thus manifested due to the influence of causes and conditions. No physical, verbal, and mental formations are truly formed, and they form nothing at all. Formations come from what is false, and they are formed out of mistaken perception. Therefore, the aggregate of formation refers to nonformations. Why is this? The wise do not ascertain any characteristics of formations. Therefore, there are no physical, verbal, or mental formations to be ascertained anywhere—whether here or somewhere else, inside or outside. If physical, verbal, and mental formations cannot be ascertained, observed, or described as having the characteristics of formations, how could we talk about apprehending or describing an aggregate of formation? Thus, the aggregate of formation is a nonexistent aggregate.
“Having developed mistaken perceptions, childish ordinary beings grow attached to the formations of body, speech, and mind. As they conceptualize the aggregate of formation and are bound by it, they cycle in saṃsāra. Under the power of mistaken perception, childish ordinary beings generate physical, verbal, and mental formations. As they grasp and cling to them, they perceive nonphenomena to be phenomena and nonexistent aggregates to be aggregates. Attached to their mistaken formations, they are bound by them and circle throughout the five classes of beings, continuously conforming to physical, verbal, and mental formations as they fail to accurately understand. By failing to accurately understand the aggregate of formation, they generate formations with body, speech, and mind. Because childish ordinary beings are attached to mistaken perceptions, because they are attached to phenomena that are not real, and because they are attached to what is false, these are called the aggregate of formation.’
“Lokadhara, when bodhisattvas accurately investigate this, they will realize that formations have no substance and are weak. They understand that the so-called aggregate of formation is simply designated as such based on a gathering of many causes and conditions, and so the aggregate of formation does not truly exist. The aggregate of formation is a nonexistent aggregate. The aggregate of formation is primordially unborn. The aggregate of formation lacks intrinsic existence. Since formations cannot be observed in the past, cannot be observed in the future, and cannot be observed in-between, they do not remain. Thus, formations arise and cease moment-by-moment.
“Lokadhara, in this fashion bodhisattvas accurately understand the aggregate of formation to be emptiness, inapprehensible, lacking a concrete nature, and not even remotely observable. Considering this, they will correctly reason in the following way with regard to the aggregate of formation: ‘Childish ordinary beings are bound by phenomena that have no essence, by the aggregate of formation, and by their attachment. They generate formations with their body, speech, and mind, and they generate the formations of self and possessions. By generating such action, they are bound by the aggregate of formation and fail to recognize the very aggregate of formation to be ignorance and delusion. Under the power of such mistaken perceptions, beings grasp and cling to formations. Since such people become attached and cling to the aggregate of formation in this way, they sometimes generate pleasurable formations, sometimes generate painful formations, and sometimes generate formations that are neither pleasurable nor painful. When generating formations concerning pleasure, such people attain a body that is pleasurable. When generating formations concerning pain, such people attain a body that is painful. When generating formations concerning what is neither pleasurable nor painful, such people attain a body that is neither pleasurable nor painful. When they attain a body that is pleasurable, such people develop desire for it. When they attain a body that is painful, such people develop aversion for it. When they attain a body that is neither pleasurable or painful, such people develop delusion regarding it. Falling under the power of desire, aversion, and delusion, they fail to see the flaws of formations, and so they fail to purify physical, verbal, and mental formations. In failing to purify physical, verbal, and mental formations, they descend into impure paths: those of hell beings, animals, and anguished spirits. Even if they manage to briefly gain freedom from such states and are born as gods or humans, they remain very attached to physical, verbal, and mental formations; they are still quite attached to the aggregate of formation. Bodhisattva great beings accurately understand this. We too should not emulate childish ordinary beings. Rather, we should train to purify physical, verbal, and mental formations and not become attached to the aggregate of formation. Having thoroughly investigated the flaws of the aggregate of formation, we should seek the path, which brings emancipation from the aggregate of formation.’
“Those who think in this way are called those who accurately contemplate the aggregate of formation and those who accurately contemplate the impermanent nature of the aggregate of formation. At that time, they will act appropriately by not grasping at, being attached, or clinging to formations, the origination of formations, the cessation of formations, or the path leading to the cessation of formations. They will not be attached or cling to formations. They will also not be attached to the aggregate of formation. When contemplating this, they will be free from the marks of formations and realize how even formations lack the nature of the aggregate of formation. By realizing all formations to be emptiness, they will become weary, apprehensive, and dismissive of all formations. They will only form pure physical, verbal, and mental formations. They will demolish the marks of formations and distance themselves from the marks of the aggregate of formation. Thus, any type of body such a person acquires will be pure. Why is this? Such people have purified their physical, verbal, and mental actions. They have purified their physical, verbal, and mental formations. They are free from the aggregate of formation, they are free from the marks of the aggregate of formation, and they destroy the marks of substantial existence of all phenomena. When accurately contemplating this matter, they realize that the aggregate of formation does not come from anywhere or go anywhere. They do not observe any formations that have the marks of truly arising or truly ceasing. They understand that formations lack the marks of arising and ceasing, for no formation has the marks of arising and ceasing. Once these people understand that formations lack the marks of arising and ceasing, they become weary and dismissive toward them. They will accurately understand and realize the marks of the origination and cessation of formations.
“Even though they see formations in terms of their characteristic of being unborn, they do not fully apprehend any characteristics of formations. Why is this? Lokadhara, it is because the aggregate of formation lacks true characteristics. Just as a banana tree lacks both the characteristic of being solid and the characteristic of not being solid, so it is with the characteristics of formations—they lack both the characteristic of being solid and the characteristic of not being solid. Lokadhara, this is how bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment whereby one mentally engages the aggregate of formation.”
“Lokadhara, how then do bodhisattva great beings accurately contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of consciousness? Bodhisattva great beings contemplate the aggregate of consciousness as a nonaggregate. They contemplate the aggregate of consciousness as a heap of error. They contemplate how the aggregate of consciousness is a heap of falsehood. Why is this so? Lokadhara, the aggregate of consciousness arises from mistaken perception. Because beings have been bound by the condition of false perception, they have previously created actions, due to which the aggregate of consciousness now manifests. Because it also depends upon current conditions, it is based on many causes and conditions. Therefore, the aggregate of consciousness arises from consciousness that is based on nonexistent and false imputations. It is called consciousness because it is cognizant. It exists adventitiously, based upon a confused conceptual mind. Because it knows, it is called consciousness. It is called the aggregate of consciousness because it is conscious of myriad entities, because it initiates mental actions, because it thinks, because it generates marks from many conditions, and because it generates thinking in myriad forms. It is called the aggregate of consciousness because consciousness causes the forms perceived by consciousness to arise and it manifests the actions of mind, and because it is fond of thinking. It is called mind, mentality, and consciousness. By conceptualizing everything through its mental activity, consciousness assembles phenomena and perceives them as characteristics, formations, and intrinsic natures. Thus, it is called the aggregate of consciousness. In this manner, the aggregate of consciousness is a nonaggregate. It is unborn, unarisen, and uncreated.
“It is called the aggregate of consciousness because it cognizes falsely, due to the condition of mistaken perception. Why is this? The aggregate of consciousness arises from many causes and conditions. It does not arise naturally, uninterruptedly, or continuously; rather it arises and ceases moment-by-moment, without generating the characteristics of the aggregate of consciousness. Why is this? Because no definitive manifestation of consciousness can be observed, and no characteristics of its manifestation can be observed. The wise reflect on it accurately, because they do not apprehend any such definitive manifestation or characteristics. Likewise, they understand that it lacks inherent nature, lacks its own characteristics, and possesses no solid nature. They understand the aggregate of consciousness to be a nonaggregate.
“Childish ordinary beings perceive what is not the aggregate of consciousness to be the aggregate of consciousness. They are bound by incorrect thinking and a false and mistaken outlook, which causes them to assiduously impute the aggregate of consciousness. Thereby they become attached to the aggregate of consciousness, dwell on the functions of consciousness, and rely upon the features of consciousness. By thus displaying a conceptual mindset, the aggregate of consciousness is generated. Such people conceptualize all sorts of things, which causes them to become attached to consciousness of the inner, consciousness of the outer, consciousness of the inner and outer, consciousness of the distant, and consciousness of the immediate. As consciousness imputes marks, beings generate the aggregate of consciousness. By means of their conceptual perception, such people impute it with the synonyms of mind, mentality, and consciousness. They assiduously impute this is mind, this is mentality, and this is consciousness. In this fashion they perceive the arising of various characteristics of the mind. Childish ordinary beings are attached to the aggregate of consciousness—they are bound by the aggregate of consciousness. Through the coming together of mind, mentality, and consciousness, the aggregate of consciousness arises in various forms. Due to being false conceptual entities, having an identical characteristic, and having a fixed characteristic, beings acquire this mind, mentality, and consciousness, and they also acquire the false concept of attachment to them. Such people depend and rely upon the aggregate of consciousness. Attached to the aggregate of consciousness, they grasp and cling to the past aggregate of consciousness as existent, they grasp and cling to the future aggregate of consciousness as existent, and they grasp and cling to the present aggregate of consciousness as existent. Childish ordinary beings become attached to things they see, hear, feel, and cognize as the aggregate of consciousness and thus construe them as being existent. Such people grasp and cling to things they see, hear, feel, and cognize. Bound by the aggregate of consciousness, they highly cherish what they cognize. Under the collective power of mind, mentality, and consciousness, they wander throughout saṃsāra, from this world to the next, and from there to here. Bound by the aggregate of consciousness, they fail to accurately understand the aggregate of consciousness. Since the aggregate of consciousness is false, then all things heard, seen, felt, and cognized have arisen from a mistaken cause, such that there is no accurate consciousness of them. In this way, as such people fail to accurately apprehend, at times a virtuous consciousness will arise, at times a nonvirtuous consciousness will arise, and at times a consciousness that is neither virtuous nor nonvirtuous will arise. Although such people always follow after consciousness, they do not recognize the origin of consciousness or the true characteristics of consciousness.
“Lokadhara, when bodhisattva great beings accurately realize this, they understand that the aggregate of consciousness arises from false consciousness. They understand that the things seen, heard, felt, and cognized arise from many causes and conditions. They think, ‘Ordinary beings perceive phenomena where there are none, and have thus become attached to the aggregate of consciousness. We should not emulate childish ordinary beings; rather, we should accurately analyze the discernment of consciousness and the discernment of the aggregate of consciousness.’
“When bodhisattvas accurately contemplate in this manner, they understand the aggregate of consciousness to be false and mistaken. They understand it as having the characteristic of being unborn from the very beginning. They understand that the aggregate of consciousness is a nonaggregate. The aggregate of consciousness is a heap of reflections. The aggregate of consciousness is a heap of illusion. For example, if an illusionist conjures up an illusory person, the consciousness of that person is not present within, without, or in-between. The nature of consciousness is analogous to that. It arises from many false conditions and conceptuality, and it is not a real entity. Consciousness is like a marionette, for it comes into being due to the gathering of many false and mistaken causes and conditions.
“When contemplating this, bodhisattvas understand consciousness to be impermanent, painful, unclean, and without self. They understand the characteristic of consciousness to be illusory and realize the nature of consciousness to be illusory. At that time, bodhisattvas think: ‘Worldly beings are intoxicated and blinded by delusion. They all appear from consciousness that imputes—as a result of the gathering of mind, mentality, and consciousness, the three realms are nothing but consciousness. Mind, mentality, and consciousness are without form or location; they do not exist either inside or outside phenomena. Because childish ordinary beings are bound by their false perceptions, they grasp and cling to the aggregate of consciousness as I and mine. Such people cling to the aggregate of consciousness as existing internally, as existing externally, as existing both internally and externally, and as existing in self and other. Such people cling to the aggregate of consciousness as primary. Bound by consciousness, they are attached to the experience of the aggregate of consciousness and proclaim the characteristics of the aggregate of consciousness. Being attached to the experience of mind, mentality, and consciousness causes them to become attached and cling to the aggregate of consciousness. Such people are bound by consciousness. Because of their association with the aggregate of consciousness, they come under the power of mind, mentality, and consciousness. Due to the causes and conditions of mind, mentality, and consciousness, they are born as childish ordinary beings. If they generate lesser thoughts, they will acquire a lesser body. If they generate superior thoughts, they will acquire a superior body. If they generate middling thoughts, they will acquire a middling body. Due to following mind, mentality, and consciousness, their dependence and reliance upon the sense sources arises. Because of their attachment to the aggregate of consciousness, they are not liberated from birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow, lamentation, and suffering.’
“Bodhisattvas accurately understand these things about the aggregate of consciousness. By accurately understanding the characteristic of impermanence of the aggregate of consciousness, they do not grasp or cling to the aggregate of consciousness of the past. They understand the aggregate of consciousness to be a nonaggregate. They do not grasp or cling to the aggregate of consciousness of the future. They understand the aggregate of consciousness to be a nonaggregate. They do not dwell upon the consciousness of the present either, for they accurately understand the characteristic of impermanence of the aggregate of consciousness. They accurately understand the characteristic of arising and ceasing of the aggregate of consciousness. Those who employ their minds in this fashion and accurately contemplate the aggregate of consciousness are said to enter the correct path. They accurately understand consciousness. They accurately understand the origination of consciousness. They accurately understand the cessation of consciousness. They accurately understand the path to the cessation of consciousness. Having accurately understood the characteristics of origination and cessation of the aggregate of consciousness, such people become skilled in destroying the aggregate of consciousness and eliminating all marks. They understand and realize the characteristics of the origination and cessation of the aggregate of consciousness. At this point, bodhisattvas neither generate nor obstruct the aggregate of consciousness, for they realize the aggregate of consciousness to be primordially unborn. When realizing this, they do not realize consciousness in terms of its characteristic of ceasing; rather, they understand the aggregate of consciousness’s characteristic of being unborn. Why is this? Lokadhara, the aggregate of consciousness is without birth, marks, or existence. The aggregate of consciousness’s characteristic of being born is false; thus it is subsumed within the characteristic of being unborn. Lokadhara, the aggregate of consciousness lacks the characteristics of birth and existence. The characteristics of the aggregate of consciousness arise from many causes and conditions. Lokadhara, when bodhisattva great beings contemplate dependently originated phenomena in this manner, they realize the aggregate of consciousness to be a nonaggregate. Having carefully analyzed and investigated in this way, they will accurately understand and realize everything designated as consciousness. Once bodhisattvas understand how to disengage from the aggregate of consciousness, they will overcome all apprehensions and objects of knowledge. Lokadhara, this is how bodhisattva great beings understand the aggregate of consciousness. When they understand the aggregate of consciousness to be unborn, uncreated, unarisen, imperceptible, and ungraspable, they see that it arises from many conditions and appears due to the gathering of many conditions. Although it comes into existence due to the conditions of things seen, heard, felt, and cognized, it is primordially empty. When contemplating the aggregate of consciousness in this manner, they understand the aggregate of consciousness to be uncreated and unarisen. They do not cling to it or become attached to it as primary. Lokadhara, this is how bodhisattva great beings accurately contemplate the discernment of, and engagement with, the aggregate of consciousness.”
“Such bodhisattvas, who skillfully engage with the five aggregates and skillfully contemplate the five aggregates for appropriation in the correct manner, are said to be skilled in engaging with the origination, cessation, and path with regard to the five aggregates. By eliminating all grasping at marks concerning the aggregates, they accurately understand the means related to the five aggregates. Through such means, they will not cling to, grasp at, crave for, or become bound by the five aggregates for appropriation. They accurately understand form and its characteristic of impermanence. Therefore, should attachment to form happen to arise for bodhisattvas, they will immediately dispel and eliminate it. Similarly, they accurately understand feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness, along with their characteristic of impermanence. Should attachment to feeling, perception, formation, or consciousness arise for bodhisattvas, they will immediately dispel it and disrupt it. By doing away with their desire for and attachment to the five aggregates for appropriation, bodhisattvas align themselves with a skillful understanding of the definitive nature of the five aggregates. When contemplating in this manner, they come to understand even the subtle marks of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation.
“Lokadhara, how do bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the subtle marks of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation? Bodhisattva great beings understand the five aggregates’ characteristic of arising and ceasing by seeing how—when beings enter the womb and begin the embryonic stage—their previous set of five aggregates has ceased and a new set of five aggregates arises. They understand that while the previous consciousness has of course ceased, the five aggregates are not characterized by disruption or cessation. While the consciousness indeed adheres to and abides in the embryo, they understand the five aggregates to be nonabiding and impermanent. Thereby they realize that the five aggregates for appropriation arise and cease moment-by-moment once they have entered the womb. Likewise, from the embryonic stage until the child is born, and from birth to death, the five aggregates for appropriation are characterized by arising and ceasing moment-by-moment. The five aggregates for appropriation arise and cease each and every moment. This is called contemplating the discernment of the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation.
“Lokadhara, the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation are as follows: Once the previous five aggregates for appropriation have ceased, beings enter the womb without any corporeality. Then, as they initially become conjoined with consciousness, the five aggregates for appropriation arise and cease. In terms of the embryonic stage, the five aggregates for appropriation are synonymously labeled a human being. Why is this? Lokadhara, without the support of consciousness, they would not remain, for it is said that the five aggregates for appropriation depend upon consciousness. Lokadhara, the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation pertaining to the gods in the formless realm should be understood in the same way. Lokadhara, if the insight of the solitary buddhas is unable to know the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation, then there’s no need to mention the insight of hearers. It is only the blessed buddhas who can properly understand the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation while in the womb, along with the momentary arising and ceasing of the aggregates of the gods in the formless realms. This is so because their omniscient insight transcends all worldly insight. Bodhisattva great beings gain the acceptance that phenomena are unborn and enter the domain of the wisdom of the buddhas. Yet even they are unable to fully understand—as the buddhas do—the subtle characteristics of the five aggregates for appropriation while in the womb, nor that which pertains to the gods in the formless realms. Lokadhara, the insight of the blessed buddhas is not dependent on other factors. Having naturally discovered wisdom, insight, and skill, they fully awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. There is nothing that the wisdom of the blessed buddhas does not understand. With the unhindered wisdom of the blessed ones, they achieve insight that is certain with regard to all phenomena and has the power to control all phenomena. Why is this? Because they have practiced an incredibly profound Dharma for immeasurable, fathomless, and countless thousands of eons.”
In The Inquiry of Lokadhara, the bodhisattva Lokadhara asks the Buddha to explain the proper way for bodhisattvas to discern the characteristics of phenomena and employ that knowledge to attain awakening. In reply, the Buddha teaches at length how to understand the lack of inherent existence of phenomena. As part of the teaching, the Buddha explains in detail the nonexistence of the aggregates, the elements, the sense sources, dependently originated phenomena, the four applications of mindfulness, the five powers, the eightfold path of the noble ones, and mundane and transcendent phenomena, as well as conditioned and unconditioned phenomena.
The sūtra was translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the guidance of Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche. The translation from the Tibetan was produced by Timothy Hinkle. Andreas Doctor checked the translation against the Tibetan, edited the text, and wrote the introduction. James Gentry subsequently compared the translation against Kumārajīva’s Chinese translation and made further edits.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The Inquiry of Lokadhara is a scripture that belongs to the general sūtra section of the Degé Kangyur. As far as we are aware, no Sanskrit version of this text remains. However, in addition to the Tibetan translation, which we have translated here, the sūtra is also present in two Chinese translations (Taishō 481 and Taishō 482). The first of these was translated by Dharmarakṣa (233–311
For this translation, we took as our basis the Tibetan Degé xylograph version and compared it to the Stok Palace manuscript and the variant readings recorded in the Comparative Edition (Tib. dpe bsdur ma). Furthermore, we compared the Tibetan with the Chinese translations. This comparison revealed strong affinities between the Tibetan translation and the Chinese translations, specifically that of Kumārajīva. Indeed, the similarities in structure and content between the Tibetan translation and Kumārajīva’s translation (Taishō 482) are so striking that this Chinese translation, or a related copy thereof, was likely the source text for the Tibetan. The minor variations between it and the Tibetan can mostly be attributed to the several centuries of editorial work that both the source text and the target text underwent since the time of the translation. There are also further indications that this text was translated into Tibetan from the Chinese. For example, the recensions in the Yongle Peking, Lithang, Kangxi Peking, Narthang, and Choné Kangyurs are all missing a Sanskrit title, which is otherwise a customary element for texts translated from Sanskrit. Only the Stok Palace and Degé Kangyurs include a Sanskrit title, but this might have been back-translated from the Tibetan and subsequently included by later editors. This and the absence of a translation colophon (another prevalent feature of some of the Tibetan translations from Chinese) suggest that the history of the text might be traced to China.
In comparing the Tibetan to Kumārajīva’s Chinese translation as it appears in Taishō 482, we did not note all minor differences. Rather, we edited the translation in favor of the Chinese wherever it was obvious (or could reasonably be argued) that the Tibetan was an unclear attempt at rendering the Chinese, or was once a clearer rendering prior to subsequent editorial interventions. In cases that were less clear to us, but where the Chinese provided a better reading, we generally adopted the Chinese reading and recorded the Tibetan in annotations.
Despite the obscurity of the textual history of this sūtra and its infrequent mention in classical and modern writings, the teachings presented herein are certain to be of value to those interested in the world view of the Great Vehicle. Whereas in some sūtras a great number of miracles and visitations from celestial bodhisattvas occur as part of the teaching, this sūtra consists of a lengthy discourse by the Buddha centered on a presentation of traditional Abhidharma categories from the perspective of the Great Vehicle. Unlike the classical presentation of Buddhist ontology, however, this teaching is not concerned with the relative nature and categorization of phenomena, but rather with the inherent emptiness of the categories described and their ultimate lack of inherent existence. In this way, the sūtra presents the topic of metaphysics from a distinctly Great Vehicle perspective that distances itself from traditional Buddhist dharma theory. Rather than emphasizing the unique characteristics and properties of phenomena, the Buddha unifies them all within the single category of emptiness. Throughout the text the terms Dharma and phenomena are translations of the same Tibetan term chos (Skt. dharma), which carries both of these meanings in addition to several other meanings that are also implied in this text, such as “awakened qualities,” “truths,” and “trainings.” This text, like much of Buddhist literature in fact, plays repeatedly with the multivalence of dharma (s) to impart a sense of the circularity and mutual implications of the “truths” that buddhas realize about the nature of “phenomena,” the “qualities” achieved through this realization, the “teachings” they give to enable others to realize it, and the “trainings” that these teachings stipulate, leading back, once again, to the discovery of such “truths.” In this regard it is also helpful to keep in mind that the dharmas in Abhidharma theory represent the “bare facts” or ontological building blocks of existence—phenomena the existence of which this text heavily critiques and questions.
Over the course of the sūtra, which is divided into twelve chapters, the Buddha presents the following topics: the five aggregates, the eighteen elements, the twelve sense sources, the twelve links of dependent origination, the four applications of mindfulness, the five powers, the eightfold path of the noble ones, the phenomena of the world and transcendence, and conditioned and unconditioned phenomena. These subjects provide an important explanatory framework for the functioning of existence and the path to awakening from the Abhidharma point of view. Although some explanation of each topic is given, the sūtra clearly assumes the reader’s familiarity with Abhidharma theory. Moreover, rather than offering a traditional explanation of these topics, the Buddha consistently explains their lack of identifying marks (Skt. animitta), meaning that despite their conventional designations, the phenomena in question do not in actuality have any true or real referents. The Buddha states that these topics are normally taught purely for the expedient purpose of guiding childish ordinary beings (i.e., not the followers of the Great Vehicle) along the path; however, on the ultimate level, the individual characteristics that these phenomena seem to possess due to the interdependent process of causation cannot be found. These subjects are taught merely to provide students with useful classifications that ultimately must lead them beyond such ontological categories. By contrast, this sūtra’s theme is the absence of marks of all phenomena, one of the three gateways of liberation, which also include emptiness and the absence of wishes. As such, the sūtra represents a clear critique of the traditional vehicle of the hearers and a forceful affirmation of the superiority of the perspective of the Great Vehicle.
[B1] Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was staying at the Kalandakanivāpa in Veṇuvana near Rājagṛha, with a great saṅgha of monks. The Blessed One was teaching the Dharma to a large assembly with hundreds of thousands of beings in attendance. Present in the assembly was the bodhisattva great being Lokadhara. It was his wish that bodhisattva great beings develop the mind of awakening by adorning themselves with immeasurable virtues; that they understand in its entirety the true meaning of all phenomena; that they understand how limitless aspirations lead to the perfection of limitless ornaments; that they comprehend and understand the true characteristics of limitless phenomena; that they purify their motivation through limitless aspirations; that they gain comprehensive knowledge; that they attain the ornament of generosity and the purity of certainty; that they perfect the ornament of discipline and patience; that they purify the attitude of mildness and gentleness; that they understand the purity of diligence; that they understand and comprehend the perfections of concentration and insight; and that they develop limitless other such virtues.
Therefore, he stood up, draped his shawl over one shoulder, and knelt on his right knee. With his palms together he bowed toward the Blessed One and said, “Blessed One, may I inquire, in order to bring benefit and happiness to many people; in order that bodhisattva great beings will not discontinue the Buddha’s lineage; in order that their discipline will be without attachment and pure in all activities; in order that they will apply themselves to the great Dharma; and in order that bodhisattvas will become knowledgeable in upholding the immeasurable domains of the Dharma of noble beings. Blessed One, how do bodhisattva great beings become knowledgeable concerning the true characteristics of phenomena? How do they become skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena? How do they acquire the power of mindfulness? How do they acquire the insight of knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena? Once they have relinquished this body, how do they sustain unbroken mindfulness until they attain unsurpassed and perfect awakening?”
The Blessed One responded to the bodhisattva Lokadhara, “Excellent, excellent! Lokadhara, it is excellent that you have asked the Thus-Gone One about these subjects on behalf of bodhisattva great beings. The merit you have gained from asking questions—in order to bring benefit and happiness to many people, out of love for the world, for the sake of the benefit and happiness of the world and its gods, and to illuminate the bodhisattvas of the present and future with great light—is boundless.
“As for your having asked the Thus-Gone One about these subjects, it is excellent that you have thought to inquire of the Thus-Gone One in order to eliminate beings’ doubts; illuminate and protect all beings; teach beings beneficial subjects; free beings from treacherous paths; serve as the support, base, protection, and refuge of many beings; extract and remove them from the three lower realms; establish beings on the unsurpassed path; liberate many beings from the anguish of birth, aging, sickness, death, distress, lamentation, pain, and anxiety; bestow the unsurpassed happiness of nirvāṇa upon beings; protect and guard the sublime Dharma in the future; and liberate beings during the dark times of destruction in the future. Therefore, Lokadhara, listen well and commit this to memory, as I will now explain.”
The bodhisattva Lokadhara replied, “Blessed One, I shall do as you ask,” and he listened to the Blessed One.
The Blessed One then said, “Sublime being, I have this to say: Bodhisattva great beings who understand four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? They should achieve perfect mindfulness, achieve unbroken mindfulness, make continuous progress by means of highly refined insight, and always remain mindful. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand these four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand an alternate set of four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? They should understand well the definitive meaning of phenomena, understand well the meaning of phenomena, understand well the various causes and conditions of phenomena, and enter the true gateway of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand an alternate set of four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? They should understand well the characteristics of limitless phenomena, become highly skilled in cultivating limitless definitive phenomena, exponentially increase engagement in limitless virtues, and understand and perceive the characteristic of arising and ceasing of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand an alternate set of four beneficial subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? They should assiduously attend to unsurpassed and perfect awakening, swiftly perfect the factors of awakening, avoid being led astray by others by being highly skilled with regard to the expedient means of phenomena, and become highly skilled in all forms of wisdom and insight. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who see these four subjects will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who possess an alternate set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? Seeking to bring beings benefit and happiness by having a mind that is unstained by stinginess, always keeping pure discipline, being unceasing in their diligent conduct by being steadfast in the perfection of diligence, and applying themselves to the perfection of insight with correct mental engagement.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? Having abundant and pure aspirations, having abundant and pure diligent conduct, being steadfast in the virtue of patience that is forgiving, and attaining the understanding that differentiates the true characteristics of phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? Pursuing omniscient wisdom with great zeal; generating great zeal by being skilled in discerning concentration, liberation, and absorption; applying themselves to pure conduct in order to attain the mental states of love, compassion, joy, and equanimity; and cultivating the definitive meaning.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena. What are these four? The perfection of the domain of insight, seeking the pure domain of wisdom, zeal for unimpeded wisdom, and never abandoning the aspiration for omniscient wisdom. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have this set of four qualities will endeavor in and apply themselves to the true characteristics of phenomena and become highly skilled in discerning the characteristics of phenomena.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand an alternate set of four subjects will pursue the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Cultivating familiarity with the complete power of mindfulness, experiencing blissful insight, maintaining unbroken mindfulness, and thoroughly cultivating the four applications of mindfulness.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand four subjects will pursue the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Always applying mindfulness with respect to the mind in order to perfect the factors of awakening, having pure insight that employs an acute power of mindfulness to know what was cultivated in previous existences, swiftly attaining unbroken mindfulness, and generating the cause of omniscient wisdom.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand four subjects will pursue the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Cultivating the entirety of contemplative methods, cultivating genuine wisdom and insight, generating tremendous diligence in order to attain the qualities of buddhahood, and not forgetting mindfulness in order to attain the strength of unbroken mindfulness. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand these four subjects will pursue the power of mindfulness.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Constant and unbroken diligence aimed at recollecting the highest insight, constant and unbroken focus aimed at achieving the true characteristics of phenomena, constant vigilance aimed at accurately recalling all phenomena, and constant guarding of one’s faculties in order to obtain correct mental engagement.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Maintaining pure discipline, having pure conduct, dispelling the five mental obscurations concerning all forms of conduct while being unattached to worldly phenomena, and discarding the obscurations of action and affliction.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Pursuing virtuous phenomena with an unperturbed mind, cultivating familiarity with the mind’s sole characteristic, having understanding and knowledge of Dharma discourses, and avoiding both householders and renunciates by being uninterested in socializing.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness. What are these four? Training under a spiritual friend, constantly applying oneself to the profound Dharma, always being happy to approach buddhas and bodhisattvas, and delighting in supplication and inquiry while being inspired to cultivate insight. Bodhisattva great beings who have these four qualities will attain the power of mindfulness.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being very knowledgeable with regard to the true characteristics of all phenomena, being very knowledgeable with regard to discerning the causes of all phenomena, being knowledgeable with regard to the definitive meaning of all phenomena, and being knowledgeable with regard to the classifications of words and speech related to all phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable with regard to the progressive order of Dharma teachings, being knowledgeable with regard to the means of the dependent origination of all phenomena, having the skillful means to cultivate all Dharma teachings, and being very knowledgeable with regard to discerning both the discourses on the definitive meaning and those on the inferred meaning.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable with regard to distinguishing the path from what is not the path, being able to describe the meaning of any Dharma teaching, swiftly achieving the domain of pure insight, and perfectly cultivating the perfection of wisdom. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have this alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable about cultivating all phenomena characterized by origination, being knowledgeable with regard to the characteristic of cessation related to the causes of all phenomena, being knowledgeable about the characteristic of the conditions related to all phenomena, and being skillful by means of causes and conditions.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable with regard to all the phenomena of suffering, being knowledgeable with regard to all the phenomena of origination, being knowledgeable with regard to all the phenomena of cessation, and being knowledgeable with regard to all the phenomena of cessation and the path.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being knowledgeable with regard to the connection between the formation and destruction of all phenomena; drawing on previous causes to achieve power; being knowledgeable with regard to anything that tames phenomena; and being knowledgeable with regard to discerning letters, syllables, and words.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena. What are these four? Being very knowledgeable with regard to the discourses of inferred meaning, not becoming caught up in the words of the discourses of definitive meaning, being knowledgeable with regard to the seal of the characteristics of all phenomena, and being steadfast in the wisdom of the absence of marks of all phenomena. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have this alternate set of four qualities will progress toward insight by knowing how to discern the categories of all phenomena.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. What are these four? Knowledge of virtuous and nonvirtuous phenomena, excellent mindfulness and insight, abandonment of the five mental obscurations, and never allowing one’s mindfulness of unsurpassed and perfect awakening to wane.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four additional qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. What are these four? Strong pursuit of the four applications of mindfulness, strong pursuit of discerning insight, placing insight at the forefront of all absorptions, and mastering definitive insight.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. What are these four? Attainment of the dhāraṇī gateways, cultivation of unborn wisdom, understanding the wisdom of exhaustion, and realization of the wisdom of cessation.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have four qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. What are these four? Eliminating desire and aversion, being free from attachment to any conditioned phenomenon, realization of unconditioned wisdom, and arriving at the domain of the thus-gone ones. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have these four qualities will have unbroken mindfulness from the point that they relinquish this body until they awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have five types of wisdom strength that purify phenomena will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies motivation, the wisdom strength that purifies aspirations, the wisdom strength that purifies roots of virtue, the wisdom strength that purifies dedication, and the wisdom strength that purifies karmic obscurations.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies conduct, the wisdom strength that purifies mindfulness, the wisdom strength that purifies practice, the wisdom strength that purifies apprehension of sentient beings, and the wisdom strength that purifies apprehension of characteristics.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies a detached attitude, the wisdom strength that purifies bringing benefit and happiness to beings, the wisdom strength that purifies the development of great love, the wisdom strength that purifies the development of great compassion, and the wisdom strength that purifies the development of great joy and equanimity.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies the observance of discipline, the wisdom strength that purifies nonattachment to the observance of discipline, the wisdom strength that purifies patience, the wisdom strength that purifies nonattachment to patience, and the wisdom strength that purifies learnedness.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies higher diligence, the wisdom strength that purifies the acquisition of diligence, the wisdom strength that purifies concentration, the wisdom strength that purifies the means of concentration, and the wisdom strength that purifies the means of tranquility and special insight.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies insight, the wisdom strength that purifies the attainment of erudition, the wisdom strength that purifies the worldly and transcendent, the wisdom strength that purifies insight and means, and the wisdom strength that purifies the conditioned and the unconditioned.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have an alternate set of five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. What are these five? The wisdom strength that purifies the understanding of means, the wisdom strength that purifies knowledge and liberation, the wisdom strength that purifies the characteristic of the unborn, the wisdom strength that purifies the singularity of characteristics and the absence of characteristics, and the wisdom strength that purifies the relative and the ultimate. Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have these five types of purificatory wisdom strength will perfect the higher virtues. Therefore, Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings must endeavor greatly to cultivate these purificatory wisdom strengths.”
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who have three qualities will endeavor in the purificatory wisdom strength. What are these three? Interest, diligence, and carefulness. Bodhisattva great beings who have these three will endeavor in the wisdom strength that purifies the entirety of virtues. Why is this? Lokadhara, interest, diligence, and carefulness are the roots of all qualities.
“Thus, bodhisattva great beings who apply themselves to the purificatory wisdom strength will swiftly attain omniscient wisdom. They will be called those who do not regress from diligence. They will be called those who do not regress from the Dharma. They will also swiftly attain an exponential growth in those very virtues. They will also swiftly achieve the wisdom strength that purifies all qualities. Lokadhara, any person who achieves the wisdom strength that purifies all qualities in this manner is said to be a field of merit for the world. It is said that this person will consume the offering goods after me. It is said that this person will arrive at the domain of the thus-gone ones. It is said that this person will realize the qualities of the thus-gone ones. Before long, such a person will master the wisdom of the thus-gone ones.
“Lokadhara, many countless immeasurable eons ago, as I was practicing bodhisattva conduct, Buddha Dīpaṅkara prophesied to me, ‘You will fully awaken to buddhahood after countless eons.’ At that very moment, I understood all these purificatory wisdom strengths. Lokadhara, any person who has such purificatory wisdom strength will attain unexcelled, perfect, and complete awakening, just as I have attained it now. Such a person will also turn the wheel of Dharma, just as I do now. That person will roar the lion’s roar, just as I roar it. That person will naturally have power and strength over all phenomena just as I do now. Lokadhara, if you have exerted yourself in the cultivation of this purificatory wisdom strength, you will spontaneously accomplish all wisdom and insight before long.
“Lokadhara, countless immeasurable eons ago, the blessed one known as King of Lofty Wisdom appeared in the world. He was a thus-gone one, a learned and virtuous one, a well-gone one, a knower of the world, an unsurpassed being, a charioteer who guides beings, a teacher of gods and humans, and a blessed buddha. Lokadhara, the blessed one King of Lofty Wisdom had an immeasurable saṅgha of hearers and an immeasurable saṅgha of bodhisattvas. This was due to the causes and conditions of this Blessed One’s past aspirations. Even the words three lower realms were unheard of in the blessed one King of Lofty Wisdom’s buddha realm. No one there had experienced any suffering; all in all, everyone there had such an abundance of happiness and joy that they were mostly free of desire, as the five obscurations were eliminated. These beings had such pure happiness that it was as if they had attained the bliss of the four concentrations. The lifespan of the blessed one King of Lofty Wisdom was one quadrillion eons. The Thus-Gone One acted as the king of the world at that time. As there was no other king, the beings of that realm called the Blessed One their Dharma King. The blessed one King of Lofty Wisdom taught the bodhisattvas a discourse from the Bodhisattva Collection called Countering the Doubts and Pleasing the Minds of All Beings. When five hundred of the bodhisattvas heard this description of the bodhisattvas’ purificatory wisdom strength, they generated such strength of diligence that for the rest of their lives, they did not develop the intent to sit; did not develop notions about clothing; did not develop notions about themselves, other beings, men, or women; and did not eat too much food. Rather, they only exerted themselves in this purificatory wisdom strength. When these five hundred bodhisattvas who had exerted themselves so diligently passed away, they were later born in a buddha realm one hundred thousand buddha realms to the east of here, due to the causes and conditions of their roots of virtue. Once born there, they exerted themselves in this teaching, and before long they remembered their past lives and gained sharp faculties. In that buddha realm is a thus-gone one named King of Immeasurable Stacked Flowers. He is still alive and teaching the Dharma. When they were sixteen years old, these bodhisattvas received ordination in the teachings of the blessed one King of Immeasurable Stacked Flowers. For six hundred thousand years, they practiced pure conduct as youths and exerted themselves in this type of diligence.
“Lokadhara, in that fashion these five hundred bodhisattvas met two hundred thousand thus-gone ones, and by practicing diligence in their presence, gained supreme mindfulness, happiness, and insight. Finally, they met the blessed one King of Lofty and Immeasurable Power, who gave them this prophecy: ‘After ten thousand eons, you will fully awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood.’ Throughout that ten-thousand-eon period, those five hundred bodhisattvas met two thousand buddhas. In this way, they perfected the awakening of the buddhas, until finally, one eon, they fully awakened to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood.
“Lokadhara, therefore one should know that bodhisattvas who want to swiftly attain unsurpassed and perfect awakening ought to develop such interest, diligence, and carefulness regarding the purificatory wisdom strength. Why is this? Lokadhara, interest, diligence, and carefulness, along with the factors of awakening, are the roots of attaining the unsurpassed and perfect awakening of the buddhas—they complete the qualities of buddhahood.
“Lokadhara, as I practiced such diligence, I met with two hundred thousand buddhas, and their teachings enabled me to recall all my past lives. By remembering the circumstances of all my past lives, I eliminated obstacles to the cultivation of this teaching. Never letting my interest, diligence, and carefulness decline, my interest, diligence, and carefulness became continuous.”
The Blessed One then gazed into the four directions with his mind of great love and compassion and displayed the miraculous power of his extraordinary abilities. He emanated buddhas into all the Jambudvīpas of the great trichiliocosm, where they each taught the discourse from the Bodhisattva Collection called Countering the Doubts and Pleasing the Minds of All Beings. Furthermore, through his miraculous ability, the many assemblies in Veṇuvana were able to behold the emanated buddhas filling the Jambudvīpas, each teaching the Dharma, whereby all the assemblies were delighted. They rose from their seats, prostrated to the Buddha, and marveled, “Blessed One, the miraculous ability of the blessed buddhas is unfathomable. The immeasurable and unfathomable Dharma is spontaneously accomplished.”
The Blessed One then addressed the myriad assemblies, “Noble children, the things revealed by the Thus-Gone One are not so remarkable. Why is this? Because the Thus-Gone One understands reality, he can use the power of his miraculous, extraordinary abilities in such a way that the light shining from a single pore of his body can illuminate as many worlds throughout the ten directions as there are grains of sand in the Ganges. Likewise, from a single pore of his body he can make the voice of Dharma heard in all those worlds. Such would not exhaust even a thousandth part of what can be displayed from a single pore. The Thus-Gone One has spontaneously accomplished such unfathomable abilities as these.
“Noble children, the Thus-Gone One teaches beings by employing an understanding of their thoughts. Noble children, there are few beings these days who are inspired to practice this teaching. Noble children, there are few beings these days who diligently endeavor in the practice of this teaching. Noble children, there are few beings these days who carefully practice this teaching. Why is this? There are few beings in such evil times who will practice this teaching. The Thus-Gone One has come to this evil world of the five degenerations: the degeneration of beings, the degeneration of views, the degeneration of lifespans, the degeneration of afflictions, and the degeneration of eons.
“Noble children, if it is rare for someone to even so much as trust in this profound and pure teaching and arrive at the insight of buddhahood, what need we say of being interested in the domain of the thus-gone ones? Noble children, my motivation for adorning myself with such aspirations and practicing such diligence and patience for so long has been to help those suffering beings who are without protector or refuge and who fall into the lower realms. Once I fully awakened, I ensured the benefit and welfare of countless, immeasurable beings. Noble children, therefore, through the grace of the Thus-Gone One’s earlier pure aspirations and diligence, countless, immeasurable beings now have faith and trust in such a profound teaching as this and embrace it. Noble children, beings that I have previously trained trust my teachings. Noble children, few beings have been made to trust such a profound teaching as this through the ten strengths and the four types of fearlessness of the blessed buddhas. All beings who observe this teaching do so through the means and power of the thus-gone ones’ intent. Long have I never been apart from this profound Dharma. That is why I care for and never abandon beings out of great love, great compassion, great joy, and great equanimity. There are few thus-gone ones who benefit beings in a vile world of the five degenerations. Why is this?
“Noble children, having earlier benefitted beings with the force of great diligence and the power of great skill, I gathered the accumulations leading to unsurpassed and perfect awakening. Noble children, I recall that in the past, I offered up and gave away a thousand bodies in a single day. Noble children, earlier, throughout thousands of lifetimes, when I saw beings suffering from hunger and thirst, I would cut flesh from my body, cook it, and give it to them—yet even then my mind felt no trouble or regret; instead, a great and universal love for all beings arose in me. Noble children, understand that in this fashion, through benefitting beings with the strength of great diligence and skill, one will gather the accumulations leading to unsurpassed and perfect awakening. Therefore, noble children, by earnest practice of interest, diligence, and carefulness, the accumulations leading to unsurpassed and perfect awakening are gathered. Just as I have engaged in bodhisattva conduct, you must also act for the benefit and happiness of beings. Noble children, none of the blessed buddhas who have appeared in this Fortunate Eon have failed to praise me. They declared, ‘The blessed one Śākyamuni engaged in such diligence. The blessed one Śākyamuni developed such diligence. The blessed one Śākyamuni perfected such diligence. By engaging in bodhisattva conduct, the blessed one Śākyamuni thus helped beings. Having appeared in a vile world of degenerations, he thus acted for the benefit and happiness of countless, immeasurable beings.’
“Noble children, those who are inspired to practice such bodhisattva conduct must exert themselves in interest, diligence, and carefulness. Noble children, even though I have fully awakened to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood, my practice of diligence has not waned; I will generate diligence until my parinirvāṇa, when my relics will be reduced to the size of mustard seeds as my body parts are divided, for even that is done for the love and care of future beings. Previously, when I was engaged in bodhisattva conduct, there were some gentle beings who had grown mistaken and errant in their conduct, leading them to descend to difficult states of being. I aroused great compassion in order to free them from those states; therefore my distributed relics, even so small as a mustard seed in size, will display miraculous power. After I reach parinirvāṇa, the minds of those who can be tamed by my relics will be purified. With purified minds, they will reach any states of being to which they aspire.
“Noble children, my spontaneous accomplishment of such compassion for beings, while I was formerly practicing the conduct of a bodhisattva, will cause my relics to be divided and distributed far and wide: this is also due to my previous aspirations. Thus will I protect many beings in vile future times through my immeasurable virtues, causes and conditions of merit, and great compassion. Noble children, I pray that those future bodhisattvas who are joyfully interested, diligent, and careful with regard to this teaching will be sure to read, recite, uphold, and fully teach discourses such as this to others. Through my miraculous power, I bless such bodhisattvas to read, recite, uphold, and fully teach them to others. So that these discourses will be read, recited, upheld, and fully taught, I have entrusted them to such bodhisattvas. Why is that? Noble children, understand that wherever these discourses appear, the Buddha will remain without passing into parinirvāṇa. Therefore, the Thus-Gone One entrusts these discourses to the bodhisattvas. Noble children, you should therefore understand that in the past, I gathered beings without abandoning them by means of such causes and conditions. Presently, I also gather beings without abandoning them. Know that in the future as well, I will gather beings without abandoning them. Having guarded and cared for such discourses, they will flourish extensively in the final five-hundred-year period to come.
“Noble children, both at the present and after I pass into parinirvāṇa, know that if such a discourse is present in a town, city, mountain, forest, or wilderness, and someone retains, receives, reads, recites, teaches, or explains it, the Buddha resides there. Why is this? Through such causes and conditions, I call buddhas the Dharma body. I declare that by seeing the Dharma one sees the Buddha. The Buddha is not to be regarded as a body of form. Those who trust this teaching, and listen to it, trust the Buddha and listen to the Buddha’s teachings. Those who earnestly practice as taught see the Buddha. Such people are said to be proper teachers, Dharma teachers, and followers of the Dharma.
“Noble children, my body is neither Dharma nor non-Dharma; it is described in accordance with the Dharma. Called the most sublime gift of Dharma, it is neither grounded in Dharma nor non-ingrained in Dharma. How is this? If it were rooted in Dharma, seeing my body would not be called seeing the Buddha. Noble children, not being rooted in any phenomenon whatsoever is described as seeing the Buddha. Whoever does not see any phenomenon is described as seeing the Buddha. Why is this? It is inappropriate to describe the Thus-Gone One as Dharma or non-Dharma, or to view him as Dharma. Why is this? Noble children, for the monks who wish to understand my Dharma as found in the discourses, if even the Dharma is to be discarded like a raft, what need we say of non-Dharma? One who is equanimous regarding Dharma and non-Dharma is said to see the Buddha. Why is this? Because the Thus-Gone One is said to be equanimous regarding all phenomena. Not being attached to, or grasping at, the label Dharma, one does not fall into the label Dharma, so what need we say of the label non-Dharma? Noble children, the absence of labels of all phenomena is called the Thus-Gone One. Those who see in this way are said to see the Thus-Gone One. Why is this? Because they are free from seeing any phenomenon, they see the Thus-Gone One. Since all phenomena are beyond apprehension, when one understands and sees all phenomena correctly as they are, this is called seeing the Thus-Gone One. Noble children, the state that does not apprehend any phenomenon is free from all phenomena, is without any thoughts of Dharma or non-Dharma, is free from debate, is free from anything to do, and is indescribable: this is called seeing the Thus-Gone One. Those who see the Dharma in this fashion are said to see the Thus-Gone One.
“Those who see the Thus-Gone One in this fashion see accurately. Those who see differently from this see mistakenly. Whoever sees mistakenly thus sees falsely; such people are not said to see correctly. Noble children, seeing true reality is the cessation of all modes of words and statements. It is neither correct nor incorrect. It neither exists nor is absent. It is free from all phenomena, does not adopt any phenomenon, and does not observe any phenomenon. Seeing like this is seeing the Thus-Gone One. Why is this? Noble children, the Thus-Gone One does not give rise to views regarding phenomena. Thus, seeing the absence of characteristics concerning all phenomena is seeing the Thus-Gone One. Whoever sees in this fashion is said to see accurately.
“Noble children, you should regard the Thus-Gone One in this way. You must analyze the Thus-Gone One just as I have explained. Those who regard the Thus-Gone One like this will understand all phenomena to be the Thus-Gone One. They will attain the suchness of all phenomena, the true reality of all phenomena, and the characteristic falsity of all phenomena. They will come to understand all phenomena to be the qualities of the Thus-Gone One, all phenomena to be the domain of the Thus-Gone One, and all phenomena to be the unfathomable domain.
“Noble children, therefore I have declared that all phenomena are the domain of the Thus-Gone One. The Thus-Gone One’s domain is devoid of a domain. Why is this? There is nothing within the domain of all phenomena to be experienced. Therefore, I have taught that the absence of a domain is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. As the domain of all phenomena is the absence of a domain, that absence of a domain is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Why is this? As the domain of all phenomena does not exist at all, the absence of a domain is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. As all domains are subsumed in the Thus-Gone One’s domain, it is not a domain. Since the Thus-Gone One understands these phenomena, the absence of a domain is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Noble children, those who understand all phenomena as the absence of a domain are people who know the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Such people realize the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Such people seek the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Such people are without attachment to the domain of the Thus-Gone One. Why is this? Such people understand the absence of a domain to be the domain of the Thus-Gone One. They understand the lack of a domain to be the domain of the Thus-Gone One.
“Because all Dharma teachings are beyond observation and investigation, and because they do not remain, they are not a domain. This is the domain of the Thus-Gone One. It is a domain that is subsumed in wisdom, because it does not enter any Dharma teachings. How is this? Because there is no gateway of the Dharma teachings, they are entered through this gateway. Noble children, no Dharma teaching has entry, origination, or form. Why is this? Given that the Thus-Gone One does not observe any Dharma teachings, from where should they appear? Into what should they enter? How could they be shown? How could they ever be taught? Noble children, this is the entry into the gateway of all Dharma teachings, because of their characteristic of being beyond entry. No Dharma teachings come together or part, are bound or liberated. Because in this way there are no gateways with regard to the gateways of all Dharma teachings, such gateways are not gateways of emergence, gateways of entry, gateways of departure, or gateways of expression; ultimately, they are called the unborn gateway. Through this Dharma gateway, no phenomenon is known or seen. This Dharma gateway involves no understanding of, or entry into, Dharma teachings. Why is this?
“Noble children, there are no gateways of Dharma teachings, because gateways cannot be observed. Space is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because it is primordially pure by nature. The absence of discontinuity is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because discontinuity cannot be observed. The absence of limits is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because limits cannot be observed. The absence of measures is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because measures cannot be observed. The absence of bounds is a gateway of all Dharma teachings, because bounds cannot be observed. Noble children, if a noble son or daughter enters this Dharma gateway, it is said that they enter the gateway of all Dharma teachings, understand the gateway of all Dharma teachings, and reveal the gateway of all Dharma teachings.”
This was chapter one: “The Introduction.”
The Blessed One then addressed the bodhisattva Lokadhara, “Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who wish to attain the true characteristics of all phenomena, wish to be learned in the characteristics of discerning phenomena, wish to attain the power of recall, wish to attain the insight that discerns all phenomena, or wish to attain unbroken mindfulness from the time they leave this body until reaching unsurpassed and perfect awakening should swiftly enter this Dharma gateway. Through this Dharma gateway, they will attain the light of insight. Why is this? Because this Dharma gateway swiftly ensures that perfection is attained. Furthermore, Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings should exert themselves in this Dharma gateway. Having entered this gateway that pertains to the Dharma, they will become highly skilled in discerning what pertains to the aggregates, elements, sense sources, dependently originated phenomena, the four applications of mindfulness, the five powers, the eightfold path of the noble ones, and mundane and transcendent phenomena. Additionally, they will become highly skilled in discerning what pertains to conditioned and unconditioned phenomena.”
“Lokadhara, how are bodhisattvas skilled in discerning what pertains to the five aggregates? Bodhisattva great beings correctly understand the five aggregates for appropriation in the following way: The aggregates for appropriation are heaps of ignorance. The aggregates for appropriation are heaps of suffering. The aggregates for appropriation are heaps of delusion. The aggregates for appropriation are heaps of sickness, boils, and thorns.
Bodhisattvas should contemplate the discernment of the aggregate for appropriation of form. How then should they contemplate the discernment of the aggregate for appropriation of form? The aggregate for appropriation of form arises from the four great elements, so the aggregate for appropriation of form is actually nothing more than a mere imputation. As the aggregate of form is without intrinsic nature and is simply a gathering of the four great elements, the aggregate of form is a mere imputation. The aggregate of form was not created, is not created, will not be created, and does not arise. The aggregate of form is nothing but a mere imputation, based upon the causes and conditions of past actions and the gathering of the four great elements. Apart from the mere imputation, it is not an aggregate. Such is the aggregate of form. To draw an analogy, it is like the aggregate of space, as it does not have any characteristic of true arising. In what is described as the aggregate of space, no phenomenon whatsoever has arisen. Still, because it has the mere label, it is called the aggregate of space. Childish ordinary beings hold what is false to be true, with their erroneous thoughts about the nonexistent aggregates and their characteristics, such that they cling to notions like ‘I am the five aggregates,’ ‘my five aggregates,’ ‘I am the aggregate of form,’ and ‘my aggregate of form.’ Thereby, in clinging to form, childish ordinary beings think of form as being themselves, something belonging to them, or something existent, perceptible, adoptable, or obtainable. They dwell on and depend upon form, and so they engage in and experience myriad nonvirtuous and evil actions.
“It is inappropriate for us to emulate childish ordinary beings, for we should arouse diligence and earnestly cultivate the factors of awakening. It is appropriate for us to investigate the aggregate of form accurately. When bodhisattvas contemplate the aggregates accurately, they understand them to be like water bubbles. How do they understand them to be like water bubbles? A water bubble does not exist—for it simply occurs due to many conditions and cannot be grasped or held. It is without solidity or a core. For these reasons, water bubbles lack any characteristics of bubbles. Just as the absence of a real bubble can be called a water bubble, so it is with the aggregate of form, for the aggregate of form lacks the characteristics of an aggregate. When bodhisattvas contemplate this, they reflect as follows: ‘Childish ordinary beings fail to understand the unreal nature of form accurately; they do not understand the impermanence of form accurately; and they do not understand the characteristic of form accurately. However, we have entered the correct path, so we shall not cling to unreal forms. Why is this? Form does not have any characteristic to grasp at, for it is just a mere label, lacking any true characteristics. Thus, because form lacks a true characteristic and has no name, it is called form. Furthermore, form has the characteristic of being destructible, yet the wise understand it as lacking marks. We must become skilled in cultivating the practice that form has no marks—we should not cling to the marks of form. If a person clings to the marks of form, they are called one who clings to form. We should become highly skilled in understanding the marks of form. When bodhisattvas understand this accurately, they know how to discern form accurately. At that point, they know that the aggregate of form arises from the imputations of childish ordinary beings. The fact that phenomena arise from imputation means that they are unborn. Since all imputations are rooted in and based on the mistaken and false understanding of childish ordinary beings, beings give rise to such forms and become bound by those forms. Tormented by form, they are pained by suffering and wander throughout saṃsāra. Blinded by ignorance and delusion, they cling to form and cannot let it go; thereby, they regard form as permanent, solid, and having a core. Through this, childish ordinary beings are bound by the fetters of form and wander constantly through the realms of hell beings, animals, anguished spirits, gods, and humans. They relish the experience of form, for they do not consider the many problems inherent in form. We should not emulate childish ordinary beings; rather, we should cultivate discernment regarding what pertains to form.’
“When cultivating discernment of form, one should view form’s nature as being like a dream. In a dream, the forms one sees arise from imputed perceptions, feelings, and concepts, which arouse sights, sounds, feelings, perceptions, and dependent origination. One then perceives these as self and other. One sees them as earth, water, fire, and wind. One sees them as mountains, lakes, forests, and so on. In this fashion, the marks of the forms in a dream do not truly exist; rather, they come about based on imputed perceptions. The marks of the aggregate of form are produced in the same way; they arise from the causes and conditions of previous actions and do not have a defined nature. If bodhisattvas contemplate in this fashion, they will not appropriate form as either I or mine. They will contemplate form accurately. They will accurately understand its characteristic of impermanence and its false and mistaken nature. Beings, however, grasp and cling to this incorrectly observed form and perceive it as I, mine, other, or other’s. When bodhisattvas discern form in this way, they do not observe it as form; they do not see it as having the nature of form; and they do not become attached to impermanent forms. At that time, if they dispel and eliminate all attachment and grasping to form, they will become highly skilled concerning the true characteristics of form; they will understand form’s characteristic of sameness; they will understand form’s characteristic of cessation; they will become skilled concerning form’s characteristic of the path that leads to cessation; they will realize that the aggregate of form does not come from anywhere or go anywhere. When contemplating in this way, they understand that the body and the aggregate of form are born from the ripening of karmic results and imputations, and that they arise from the gathering of the four great elements. The aggregate of physical form is not the self, not another, ownerless, and does not come from anywhere. Having contemplated the aggregate of form in this fashion, they will not grasp or become attached to inner forms, outer forms, past forms, future forms, or present forms, as they understand all aggregates of form in terms of their characteristic of being unborn. These bodhisattvas then neither negate form nor seek a Dharma that negates form. Lokadhara, for these reasons, bodhisattva great beings are called those who engage in the discernment of form.”
“Lokadhara, how do bodhisattva great beings engage in the discernment of the aggregate for appropriation of feeling? Bodhisattvas think: ‘Pleasurable feelings, painful feelings, and feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful arise through dependent origination and are based on causes and conditions. Therefore, if one has understood the characteristic of feeling, there is no feeling there, for it is simply clinging. Such clinging is false and arises from false imputations.’ When bodhisattvas think such, they will also think, ‘Childish ordinary beings, bound by falsely imputed feelings, are tormented by the three types of feeling: pleasurable feelings, painful feelings, and feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful. When childish ordinary beings experience pleasurable feelings, they become bound by the affliction of desire. Because they are afflicted by desire’s secondary afflictions, they engage in various nonvirtuous actions. When they experience unpleasant feelings, they become bound by the affliction of aggression. Because they are afflicted by aggression’s secondary afflictions, they engage in various nonvirtuous actions. When they experience feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful, they become bound by the affliction of ignorance. Because they are afflicted by ignorance’s secondary afflictions, they are not freed from misery, lamentation, and painful torment. We should not emulate childish ordinary beings. Rather we should investigate the true reality of phenomena. We should investigate feeling accurately.’
“Once bodhisattvas have investigated the aggregate of feelings accurately, they will think, ‘The aggregate of feelings is not an aggregate. Feelings arise from false imputation, and they are devoid of action. Feelings arise from the cause of past actions and are experienced based upon conditions in the present moment. Because feelings are naturally empty, they lack the marks of feelings.’ When bodhisattvas contemplate the aggregate of feeling, they see that the aggregate of feelings is like water bubbles that appear and cease without ever truly existing. They arise from the connections between causes and conditions, and they depend on causes and conditions. Hence, they do not remain, even momentarily. As they are not real, they have arisen from the falsehood of imputation. At that time bodhisattvas will think, ‘Ordinary beings are the objects of our loving-kindness. Since they do not understand the aggregate of feelings accurately, they are afflicted by their feelings. They become attached to pleasurable feelings, painful feelings, and feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful. Bound by such feelings, they wander throughout saṃsāra and pass from one body to another in an unbroken stream, because due to afflictive feelings, they do not understand the characteristics of the aggregate of feelings accurately. We should not emulate such childish ordinary beings. Rather, we should accurately investigate the discernment of the aggregate of feelings.’
“When they accurately contemplate the aggregate of feelings, they will realize the aggregate of feelings to be a nonexistent aggregate, a false aggregate, a mistaken aggregate, and a nonabiding aggregate. At that time, they will accurately see the characteristics of the aggregate of feelings to be uncreated and devoid of action. They will not view the aggregate of feelings as having any characteristics of the aggregate of feelings. When contemplating the aggregate of feelings in this fashion, they do not view the aggregate of feelings as existing within or without. They are not attached to feelings being I, and they are not attached to feelings being mine. They thus understand that the aggregate of feelings does not come from anywhere, that it is ownerless, and that it is not brought into being by anything. They know that feelings are mistaken, and that what is labeled the category of the aggregate of feelings manifests as the ripened effect of past actions. They see the aggregate of feelings as the unbroken continuity of engagement in false causes and conditions. At that time, they do not grasp, desire, or cling to the aggregate of feelings of the past; they do not grasp, desire, or cling to the aggregate of feelings of the future; and they do not grasp, desire, or cling to the aggregate of feelings of the present.
“Such people exert themselves in removing the affliction of desire from pleasurable feelings, the affliction of aversion from painful feelings, and the affliction of ignorance from feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful. Then, the mind of desire will not arise when the bodhisattva experiences pleasurable feelings, the mind of aversion will not arise when the bodhisattva experience painful feelings, and the mind of delusion will not arise when the bodhisattva experiences feelings that are neither pleasurable nor painful. Lokadhara, for the most part, the mind of desire arises when childish ordinary beings experience pleasurable feelings, the mind of aversion arises when they experience painful feelings, and the mind of delusion arises when they experience feelings that are neither pleasant nor painful. Thereby, childish ordinary beings are blinded by attachment, aversion, and delusion and fail to accurately understand the aggregate of feelings just as it is. Failing to understand the characteristics of attachment, aversion, and delusion, they become attached and cling to attachment, aversion, and delusion as being I, mine, and so forth.
“Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings who understand the aggregate of feelings accurately will not fall under the influence of attachment, aversion, and delusion. Even if attachment, aversion, and delusion should arise, they will immediately dispel them, taking them earnestly onto the genuine path. They diligently practice in order to remove the affliction of attachment from the experience of pleasurable feelings. They diligently practice in order to remove the affliction of aversion from the experience of painful feelings. They diligently practice in order to remove the affliction of delusion from the experience of feelings that are neither pleasant nor painful. Thus, they gain accurate understanding of the three types of feeling. Then, to that extent, as they experience feelings, they do not cling to pleasurable feelings, painful feelings, or feelings that are neither pleasant nor painful. Distancing themselves from them, they become freed from the affliction of attachment, the affliction of aversion, and the affliction of delusion. Then, when feelings occur, they will understand and regard the aggregate of feelings accurately as impermanent. Having gained such understanding, they will disrupt attachment to the aggregate of feelings. Having understood the disrupted aggregate of feelings in this way, they will no longer be afflicted by feelings on the paths of desire and attachment. If bodhisattvas understand and realize the aggregate of feelings accurately, they will understand the origin of the aggregate of feelings, the cessation of the aggregate of feelings, and the path leading to cessation of the aggregate of feelings. Then they will understand the aggregate of feelings to be characterized as being unborn. Through this characteristic of being unborn, they will understand and realize the aggregate of feelings to be free of marks. Lokadhara, this has been a discussion of how bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of feelings.”
“Lokadhara, how do bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of perception? When bodhisattva great beings accurately contemplate the aggregate of perception, they see that the aggregate of perception arises from error, and that it is false, unreal, unreliable, and has the characteristic of never having being born to begin with. Being discontinuous, they see it as a gathering of causes and conditions, and as having arisen through the power of past actions. They think, ‘The aggregate of perception is a nonaggregate, for the aggregate of perception is a heap of falsehood. The aggregate of perception is a heap of error. The aggregate of perception lacks the marks of the aggregate of perception. It is just a label, like the mirages of summertime. The aggregate of perception is just like an aggregate of mirages. The label perception is imputed due to the perceptions of consciousness.’
“Childish ordinary beings are bound by such false perceptions, which they perceive as pleasure, pain, neither pleasure nor pain, heat, cold, male, female, cycling throughout the five classes of beings, gathering, dispersing, past, present, future, good, bad, existence, and nonexistence. As the perceptions of childish ordinary beings are under the sway of false delusion, and dependent upon causes and conditions, the aggregate of perception is a mere imputation. There are no so-called perceptions either internally or externally. Bound by their false perceptions, childish ordinary beings perceive in terms of attachment, aversion, and delusion. They perceive children and wives. Childish ordinary beings rely on the aggregate of perception and are attached to their false paths. Therefore, they circle throughout saṃsāra due to the aggregate of perception. They fail to understand accurately that the aggregate of perception is false. Childish ordinary beings perceive in terms of self and other. Perceiving male and female, they are bound by the aggregate of perception and are thus not liberated. They grasp and cling to the aggregate of perception as being I or mine. We should not emulate childish ordinary beings.’
“When bodhisattva great beings accurately contemplate the aggregate of perception in this way, they will not apprehend the aggregate of perception as the aggregate of perception, just as one will not apprehend an aggregate of mirages as an aggregate of mirages. Bodhisattvas view the aggregate of perception as a mirage; thus, they do not desire, take up, or cling to past aggregates of perception; they do not desire, take up, or cling to future aggregates of perception; and they do not dwell on the present aggregates of perception. They do not conceptualize self and other. They exert themselves in the cessation of the aggregate of perception and understand the path of the aggregate of perception to be unborn. They do not view the aggregate of perception as having any basis for coming or any basis for going. Rather, they view it as something mistaken that arises from the cause of past actions, while being bound by current conditions. The aggregate of perception is a nonexistent aggregate. When they discern and contemplate that the aggregate of perception does not have any basis for coming or any basis for going, they realize the aggregate of perception to be unborn. They will also not conceptualize the cessation of the aggregate of perception; this is because they abide in accurate understanding and knowledge for all the feelings associated with perception to cease. When bodhisattvas accurately contemplate the aggregate of perception, they are free from the aggregate of perception, such that, without dwelling on the path of perception, they adhere to an accurate knowledge and understanding of the aggregate of perception. Without being attached to the aggregate of perception, they accurately discern and contemplate the aggregate of perception. They also accurately understand the origination, cessation, and exhaustion of the aggregate of perception. Lokadhara, this is how bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of perception. As they are free from attachment to the aggregate of perception, they apply themselves to the path, which disrupts attachment to the aggregate of perception.” [B2]
“Lokadhara, how then do bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of formation? Lokadhara, bodhisattva great beings realize that the aggregate of formation arises from error and is a mere imputation based on false imputations. At that time, bodhisattvas contemplate how all physical, verbal, and mental formations are unclean, impermanent, painful, empty, and selfless. When contemplating this, they think, ‘The aggregate of formation is a nonaggregate. The aggregate of formation is a heap of suffering. The aggregate of formation is a dependently originated aggregate. The aggregate of formation is a heap of reflections. The aggregate of formation does not increase or decrease; it is not gathered. Given that all physical, verbal, and mental formations are uncreated, the wise do not become attached to or grasp the aggregate of formation. Why is this? Physical formations do not exist within the body, outside it, or in-between. Likewise, verbal and mental formations do not exist within, without, or in-between.
“ ‘The aggregate of formation lacks the characteristics of the aggregate of formation. Why is this? The aggregate of formation arises from many causes and conditions, mistaken perceptions, false perceptions, and the ripening of the effects of past actions. Formations are thus manifested due to the influence of causes and conditions. No physical, verbal, and mental formations are truly formed, and they form nothing at all. Formations come from what is false, and they are formed out of mistaken perception. Therefore, the aggregate of formation refers to nonformations. Why is this? The wise do not ascertain any characteristics of formations. Therefore, there are no physical, verbal, or mental formations to be ascertained anywhere—whether here or somewhere else, inside or outside. If physical, verbal, and mental formations cannot be ascertained, observed, or described as having the characteristics of formations, how could we talk about apprehending or describing an aggregate of formation? Thus, the aggregate of formation is a nonexistent aggregate.
“Having developed mistaken perceptions, childish ordinary beings grow attached to the formations of body, speech, and mind. As they conceptualize the aggregate of formation and are bound by it, they cycle in saṃsāra. Under the power of mistaken perception, childish ordinary beings generate physical, verbal, and mental formations. As they grasp and cling to them, they perceive nonphenomena to be phenomena and nonexistent aggregates to be aggregates. Attached to their mistaken formations, they are bound by them and circle throughout the five classes of beings, continuously conforming to physical, verbal, and mental formations as they fail to accurately understand. By failing to accurately understand the aggregate of formation, they generate formations with body, speech, and mind. Because childish ordinary beings are attached to mistaken perceptions, because they are attached to phenomena that are not real, and because they are attached to what is false, these are called the aggregate of formation.’
“Lokadhara, when bodhisattvas accurately investigate this, they will realize that formations have no substance and are weak. They understand that the so-called aggregate of formation is simply designated as such based on a gathering of many causes and conditions, and so the aggregate of formation does not truly exist. The aggregate of formation is a nonexistent aggregate. The aggregate of formation is primordially unborn. The aggregate of formation lacks intrinsic existence. Since formations cannot be observed in the past, cannot be observed in the future, and cannot be observed in-between, they do not remain. Thus, formations arise and cease moment-by-moment.
“Lokadhara, in this fashion bodhisattvas accurately understand the aggregate of formation to be emptiness, inapprehensible, lacking a concrete nature, and not even remotely observable. Considering this, they will correctly reason in the following way with regard to the aggregate of formation: ‘Childish ordinary beings are bound by phenomena that have no essence, by the aggregate of formation, and by their attachment. They generate formations with their body, speech, and mind, and they generate the formations of self and possessions. By generating such action, they are bound by the aggregate of formation and fail to recognize the very aggregate of formation to be ignorance and delusion. Under the power of such mistaken perceptions, beings grasp and cling to formations. Since such people become attached and cling to the aggregate of formation in this way, they sometimes generate pleasurable formations, sometimes generate painful formations, and sometimes generate formations that are neither pleasurable nor painful. When generating formations concerning pleasure, such people attain a body that is pleasurable. When generating formations concerning pain, such people attain a body that is painful. When generating formations concerning what is neither pleasurable nor painful, such people attain a body that is neither pleasurable nor painful. When they attain a body that is pleasurable, such people develop desire for it. When they attain a body that is painful, such people develop aversion for it. When they attain a body that is neither pleasurable or painful, such people develop delusion regarding it. Falling under the power of desire, aversion, and delusion, they fail to see the flaws of formations, and so they fail to purify physical, verbal, and mental formations. In failing to purify physical, verbal, and mental formations, they descend into impure paths: those of hell beings, animals, and anguished spirits. Even if they manage to briefly gain freedom from such states and are born as gods or humans, they remain very attached to physical, verbal, and mental formations; they are still quite attached to the aggregate of formation. Bodhisattva great beings accurately understand this. We too should not emulate childish ordinary beings. Rather, we should train to purify physical, verbal, and mental formations and not become attached to the aggregate of formation. Having thoroughly investigated the flaws of the aggregate of formation, we should seek the path, which brings emancipation from the aggregate of formation.’
“Those who think in this way are called those who accurately contemplate the aggregate of formation and those who accurately contemplate the impermanent nature of the aggregate of formation. At that time, they will act appropriately by not grasping at, being attached, or clinging to formations, the origination of formations, the cessation of formations, or the path leading to the cessation of formations. They will not be attached or cling to formations. They will also not be attached to the aggregate of formation. When contemplating this, they will be free from the marks of formations and realize how even formations lack the nature of the aggregate of formation. By realizing all formations to be emptiness, they will become weary, apprehensive, and dismissive of all formations. They will only form pure physical, verbal, and mental formations. They will demolish the marks of formations and distance themselves from the marks of the aggregate of formation. Thus, any type of body such a person acquires will be pure. Why is this? Such people have purified their physical, verbal, and mental actions. They have purified their physical, verbal, and mental formations. They are free from the aggregate of formation, they are free from the marks of the aggregate of formation, and they destroy the marks of substantial existence of all phenomena. When accurately contemplating this matter, they realize that the aggregate of formation does not come from anywhere or go anywhere. They do not observe any formations that have the marks of truly arising or truly ceasing. They understand that formations lack the marks of arising and ceasing, for no formation has the marks of arising and ceasing. Once these people understand that formations lack the marks of arising and ceasing, they become weary and dismissive toward them. They will accurately understand and realize the marks of the origination and cessation of formations.
“Even though they see formations in terms of their characteristic of being unborn, they do not fully apprehend any characteristics of formations. Why is this? Lokadhara, it is because the aggregate of formation lacks true characteristics. Just as a banana tree lacks both the characteristic of being solid and the characteristic of not being solid, so it is with the characteristics of formations—they lack both the characteristic of being solid and the characteristic of not being solid. Lokadhara, this is how bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment whereby one mentally engages the aggregate of formation.”
“Lokadhara, how then do bodhisattva great beings accurately contemplate the discernment of the aggregate of consciousness? Bodhisattva great beings contemplate the aggregate of consciousness as a nonaggregate. They contemplate the aggregate of consciousness as a heap of error. They contemplate how the aggregate of consciousness is a heap of falsehood. Why is this so? Lokadhara, the aggregate of consciousness arises from mistaken perception. Because beings have been bound by the condition of false perception, they have previously created actions, due to which the aggregate of consciousness now manifests. Because it also depends upon current conditions, it is based on many causes and conditions. Therefore, the aggregate of consciousness arises from consciousness that is based on nonexistent and false imputations. It is called consciousness because it is cognizant. It exists adventitiously, based upon a confused conceptual mind. Because it knows, it is called consciousness. It is called the aggregate of consciousness because it is conscious of myriad entities, because it initiates mental actions, because it thinks, because it generates marks from many conditions, and because it generates thinking in myriad forms. It is called the aggregate of consciousness because consciousness causes the forms perceived by consciousness to arise and it manifests the actions of mind, and because it is fond of thinking. It is called mind, mentality, and consciousness. By conceptualizing everything through its mental activity, consciousness assembles phenomena and perceives them as characteristics, formations, and intrinsic natures. Thus, it is called the aggregate of consciousness. In this manner, the aggregate of consciousness is a nonaggregate. It is unborn, unarisen, and uncreated.
“It is called the aggregate of consciousness because it cognizes falsely, due to the condition of mistaken perception. Why is this? The aggregate of consciousness arises from many causes and conditions. It does not arise naturally, uninterruptedly, or continuously; rather it arises and ceases moment-by-moment, without generating the characteristics of the aggregate of consciousness. Why is this? Because no definitive manifestation of consciousness can be observed, and no characteristics of its manifestation can be observed. The wise reflect on it accurately, because they do not apprehend any such definitive manifestation or characteristics. Likewise, they understand that it lacks inherent nature, lacks its own characteristics, and possesses no solid nature. They understand the aggregate of consciousness to be a nonaggregate.
“Childish ordinary beings perceive what is not the aggregate of consciousness to be the aggregate of consciousness. They are bound by incorrect thinking and a false and mistaken outlook, which causes them to assiduously impute the aggregate of consciousness. Thereby they become attached to the aggregate of consciousness, dwell on the functions of consciousness, and rely upon the features of consciousness. By thus displaying a conceptual mindset, the aggregate of consciousness is generated. Such people conceptualize all sorts of things, which causes them to become attached to consciousness of the inner, consciousness of the outer, consciousness of the inner and outer, consciousness of the distant, and consciousness of the immediate. As consciousness imputes marks, beings generate the aggregate of consciousness. By means of their conceptual perception, such people impute it with the synonyms of mind, mentality, and consciousness. They assiduously impute this is mind, this is mentality, and this is consciousness. In this fashion they perceive the arising of various characteristics of the mind. Childish ordinary beings are attached to the aggregate of consciousness—they are bound by the aggregate of consciousness. Through the coming together of mind, mentality, and consciousness, the aggregate of consciousness arises in various forms. Due to being false conceptual entities, having an identical characteristic, and having a fixed characteristic, beings acquire this mind, mentality, and consciousness, and they also acquire the false concept of attachment to them. Such people depend and rely upon the aggregate of consciousness. Attached to the aggregate of consciousness, they grasp and cling to the past aggregate of consciousness as existent, they grasp and cling to the future aggregate of consciousness as existent, and they grasp and cling to the present aggregate of consciousness as existent. Childish ordinary beings become attached to things they see, hear, feel, and cognize as the aggregate of consciousness and thus construe them as being existent. Such people grasp and cling to things they see, hear, feel, and cognize. Bound by the aggregate of consciousness, they highly cherish what they cognize. Under the collective power of mind, mentality, and consciousness, they wander throughout saṃsāra, from this world to the next, and from there to here. Bound by the aggregate of consciousness, they fail to accurately understand the aggregate of consciousness. Since the aggregate of consciousness is false, then all things heard, seen, felt, and cognized have arisen from a mistaken cause, such that there is no accurate consciousness of them. In this way, as such people fail to accurately apprehend, at times a virtuous consciousness will arise, at times a nonvirtuous consciousness will arise, and at times a consciousness that is neither virtuous nor nonvirtuous will arise. Although such people always follow after consciousness, they do not recognize the origin of consciousness or the true characteristics of consciousness.
“Lokadhara, when bodhisattva great beings accurately realize this, they understand that the aggregate of consciousness arises from false consciousness. They understand that the things seen, heard, felt, and cognized arise from many causes and conditions. They think, ‘Ordinary beings perceive phenomena where there are none, and have thus become attached to the aggregate of consciousness. We should not emulate childish ordinary beings; rather, we should accurately analyze the discernment of consciousness and the discernment of the aggregate of consciousness.’
“When bodhisattvas accurately contemplate in this manner, they understand the aggregate of consciousness to be false and mistaken. They understand it as having the characteristic of being unborn from the very beginning. They understand that the aggregate of consciousness is a nonaggregate. The aggregate of consciousness is a heap of reflections. The aggregate of consciousness is a heap of illusion. For example, if an illusionist conjures up an illusory person, the consciousness of that person is not present within, without, or in-between. The nature of consciousness is analogous to that. It arises from many false conditions and conceptuality, and it is not a real entity. Consciousness is like a marionette, for it comes into being due to the gathering of many false and mistaken causes and conditions.
“When contemplating this, bodhisattvas understand consciousness to be impermanent, painful, unclean, and without self. They understand the characteristic of consciousness to be illusory and realize the nature of consciousness to be illusory. At that time, bodhisattvas think: ‘Worldly beings are intoxicated and blinded by delusion. They all appear from consciousness that imputes—as a result of the gathering of mind, mentality, and consciousness, the three realms are nothing but consciousness. Mind, mentality, and consciousness are without form or location; they do not exist either inside or outside phenomena. Because childish ordinary beings are bound by their false perceptions, they grasp and cling to the aggregate of consciousness as I and mine. Such people cling to the aggregate of consciousness as existing internally, as existing externally, as existing both internally and externally, and as existing in self and other. Such people cling to the aggregate of consciousness as primary. Bound by consciousness, they are attached to the experience of the aggregate of consciousness and proclaim the characteristics of the aggregate of consciousness. Being attached to the experience of mind, mentality, and consciousness causes them to become attached and cling to the aggregate of consciousness. Such people are bound by consciousness. Because of their association with the aggregate of consciousness, they come under the power of mind, mentality, and consciousness. Due to the causes and conditions of mind, mentality, and consciousness, they are born as childish ordinary beings. If they generate lesser thoughts, they will acquire a lesser body. If they generate superior thoughts, they will acquire a superior body. If they generate middling thoughts, they will acquire a middling body. Due to following mind, mentality, and consciousness, their dependence and reliance upon the sense sources arises. Because of their attachment to the aggregate of consciousness, they are not liberated from birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow, lamentation, and suffering.’
“Bodhisattvas accurately understand these things about the aggregate of consciousness. By accurately understanding the characteristic of impermanence of the aggregate of consciousness, they do not grasp or cling to the aggregate of consciousness of the past. They understand the aggregate of consciousness to be a nonaggregate. They do not grasp or cling to the aggregate of consciousness of the future. They understand the aggregate of consciousness to be a nonaggregate. They do not dwell upon the consciousness of the present either, for they accurately understand the characteristic of impermanence of the aggregate of consciousness. They accurately understand the characteristic of arising and ceasing of the aggregate of consciousness. Those who employ their minds in this fashion and accurately contemplate the aggregate of consciousness are said to enter the correct path. They accurately understand consciousness. They accurately understand the origination of consciousness. They accurately understand the cessation of consciousness. They accurately understand the path to the cessation of consciousness. Having accurately understood the characteristics of origination and cessation of the aggregate of consciousness, such people become skilled in destroying the aggregate of consciousness and eliminating all marks. They understand and realize the characteristics of the origination and cessation of the aggregate of consciousness. At this point, bodhisattvas neither generate nor obstruct the aggregate of consciousness, for they realize the aggregate of consciousness to be primordially unborn. When realizing this, they do not realize consciousness in terms of its characteristic of ceasing; rather, they understand the aggregate of consciousness’s characteristic of being unborn. Why is this? Lokadhara, the aggregate of consciousness is without birth, marks, or existence. The aggregate of consciousness’s characteristic of being born is false; thus it is subsumed within the characteristic of being unborn. Lokadhara, the aggregate of consciousness lacks the characteristics of birth and existence. The characteristics of the aggregate of consciousness arise from many causes and conditions. Lokadhara, when bodhisattva great beings contemplate dependently originated phenomena in this manner, they realize the aggregate of consciousness to be a nonaggregate. Having carefully analyzed and investigated in this way, they will accurately understand and realize everything designated as consciousness. Once bodhisattvas understand how to disengage from the aggregate of consciousness, they will overcome all apprehensions and objects of knowledge. Lokadhara, this is how bodhisattva great beings understand the aggregate of consciousness. When they understand the aggregate of consciousness to be unborn, uncreated, unarisen, imperceptible, and ungraspable, they see that it arises from many conditions and appears due to the gathering of many conditions. Although it comes into existence due to the conditions of things seen, heard, felt, and cognized, it is primordially empty. When contemplating the aggregate of consciousness in this manner, they understand the aggregate of consciousness to be uncreated and unarisen. They do not cling to it or become attached to it as primary. Lokadhara, this is how bodhisattva great beings accurately contemplate the discernment of, and engagement with, the aggregate of consciousness.”
“Such bodhisattvas, who skillfully engage with the five aggregates and skillfully contemplate the five aggregates for appropriation in the correct manner, are said to be skilled in engaging with the origination, cessation, and path with regard to the five aggregates. By eliminating all grasping at marks concerning the aggregates, they accurately understand the means related to the five aggregates. Through such means, they will not cling to, grasp at, crave for, or become bound by the five aggregates for appropriation. They accurately understand form and its characteristic of impermanence. Therefore, should attachment to form happen to arise for bodhisattvas, they will immediately dispel and eliminate it. Similarly, they accurately understand feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness, along with their characteristic of impermanence. Should attachment to feeling, perception, formation, or consciousness arise for bodhisattvas, they will immediately dispel it and disrupt it. By doing away with their desire for and attachment to the five aggregates for appropriation, bodhisattvas align themselves with a skillful understanding of the definitive nature of the five aggregates. When contemplating in this manner, they come to understand even the subtle marks of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation.
“Lokadhara, how do bodhisattva great beings contemplate the discernment of the subtle marks of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation? Bodhisattva great beings understand the five aggregates’ characteristic of arising and ceasing by seeing how—when beings enter the womb and begin the embryonic stage—their previous set of five aggregates has ceased and a new set of five aggregates arises. They understand that while the previous consciousness has of course ceased, the five aggregates are not characterized by disruption or cessation. While the consciousness indeed adheres to and abides in the embryo, they understand the five aggregates to be nonabiding and impermanent. Thereby they realize that the five aggregates for appropriation arise and cease moment-by-moment once they have entered the womb. Likewise, from the embryonic stage until the child is born, and from birth to death, the five aggregates for appropriation are characterized by arising and ceasing moment-by-moment. The five aggregates for appropriation arise and cease each and every moment. This is called contemplating the discernment of the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation.
“Lokadhara, the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation are as follows: Once the previous five aggregates for appropriation have ceased, beings enter the womb without any corporeality. Then, as they initially become conjoined with consciousness, the five aggregates for appropriation arise and cease. In terms of the embryonic stage, the five aggregates for appropriation are synonymously labeled a human being. Why is this? Lokadhara, without the support of consciousness, they would not remain, for it is said that the five aggregates for appropriation depend upon consciousness. Lokadhara, the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation pertaining to the gods in the formless realm should be understood in the same way. Lokadhara, if the insight of the solitary buddhas is unable to know the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation, then there’s no need to mention the insight of hearers. It is only the blessed buddhas who can properly understand the subtle characteristics of arising and ceasing of the five aggregates for appropriation while in the womb, along with the momentary arising and ceasing of the aggregates of the gods in the formless realms. This is so because their omniscient insight transcends all worldly insight. Bodhisattva great beings gain the acceptance that phenomena are unborn and enter the domain of the wisdom of the buddhas. Yet even they are unable to fully understand—as the buddhas do—the subtle characteristics of the five aggregates for appropriation while in the womb, nor that which pertains to the gods in the formless realms. Lokadhara, the insight of the blessed buddhas is not dependent on other factors. Having naturally discovered wisdom, insight, and skill, they fully awaken to unsurpassed and perfect buddhahood. There is nothing that the wisdom of the blessed buddhas does not understand. With the unhindered wisdom of the blessed ones, they achieve insight that is certain with regard to all phenomena and has the power to control all phenomena. Why is this? Because they have practiced an incredibly profound Dharma for immeasurable, fathomless, and countless thousands of eons.”