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The Chinese translation was produced by Gautama Prajñāruci, who translated the text from 538 to 541
The AMSD is also the fourth-longest text in the entire Kangyur collection, where only The Detailed Explanations of Discipline (Toh 3, 2217 pages), The Perfection of Wisdom in One Hundred Thousand Lines (Toh 8, 9398 pages), and The Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines (Toh 9, 2302 pages) are longer.
Denkarma, 300.b.4. See also Herrmann-Pfandt 2008, p. 150, n. 271. For further details, see van der Kuijp 2009, pp. 8–13.
See Stuart 2012 and 2015a. This section corresponds to the whole of chapter 2 according to the Chinese chapter structure. In this English translation we follow the chapter division included in the Tibetan translation, although we have introduced a significant number of headings and subheadings of our own for the sake of readability and ease of navigation. For an overview of the Chinese chapter structure, see Stuart 2012, p. 30.
On this topic, see also Kritzer 2020. Other publications on AMSD are found in Mizuno 1964 and Moretti 2017.
Degé: mu stegs can spyod pa pa kun tu rgyu ba dag. Here we have taken the phrase (Skt. tīrthika-caraka-parivrājaka) as a generic designation for the same group of people: the flourishing communities of non-Buddhist mendicants of various religious outlooks, who lived as wandering spiritual seekers (śramaṇa) in India during the time of the Buddha. Often, these wandering practitioners of various religious paths would interact with each other and exchange views and practices, such as we hear in this scripture. Several of the Buddha’s foremost students, such as Śāriputra (a short form of Śāradvatīputra), were living the life of a wandering mendicant prior to meeting the Buddha.
Here “carefully observe inner phenomena” renders the Tibetan nang gi chos la chos kyi rjes su lta ba. Literally, this would read “carefully observe phenomena in terms of inner phenomena.” This expression is repeated multiple times throughout this text and, due to the number of times this phrase is repeated, we have opted to contract the phrase in English so that the translation reads “carefully observe inner phenomena.” Similarly, in the last chapter where the internal and external body are examined, we have rendered “carefully considers and attends to the body in terms of the internal body” as “carefully considers and attends to the internal body.” The same applies to the external body.
Tib. mun nag chen po. No such name appears below in the description of the hells that surround Ultimate Torment.
Translation tentative. Degé: lag pa brdabs pa’i sgra lta bur/ mi ni chung bar gyur pa yin/ gang dag de thob chos mi shes/ mi ni rmongs pa dag gis bslus.
Based on the sgyu ma that appears in Choné, Lithang, Narthang, Yongle, and Lhasa. Degé and Stok read rgyu ma.
Based on the sgyu ma that appears in Choné, Lithang, Narthang, Yongle, and Lhasa. Degé and Stok read rgyu ma.
Translation based on the mtho dma’ found in Choné, Lithang, Narthang, and Lhasa. Degé reads mthon dman.
Literally “holy life” (Skt. brahmacārya, Tib. tshang par spyod pa). The term refers to a pure and celibate lifestyle.
Degé: bar ma gsum gyi tshor bag sum rjes su bsgoms pa. Skt. trimadhyamās trivedanānubhavitās.
“Craving is the wick” inserted based on the Sanskrit (vartibhūtā tṛṣṇā). See Stuart 2012, p. 231 (4.2.22).
Although the text here mentions the fifth ground, it is unclear where the explanation of the fifth ground starts, since a similar passage follows below. See also Stuart 2012, p. 327, n. 59.
Prior to this sentence the Sanskrit includes a description of the hells and starving spirits as associated with the colors blue and yellow, respectively. See Stuart 2012, p. 335 (5.1.10 and 5.1.11).
Translation tentative. Degé: bdag nyid gtar bzhag. Based on the Sanskrit bandhakaṃ yadi cātmāṇam kṛtvā papeṣu rajyate, Stuart 2012, p. 340, translates: “Making a shackle of the self he delights in evil.”
Translation tentative. Degé: chos ’di dag la yid ’jug pa skye ba’i mtshan nyid mi ’dra zhing ngo bo nyid mi ’dra ba yin te/ dper na sa chen po bcu’i chos lta bu’o. Skt. tathā daśa mahābhaumā dharmāḥ anyad eve lakṣaṇam cetanāyāḥ. Cf. Stuart 2012, p. 343, n. 116.
An action “with acquisition” is one that has been “acquired” (Tib. thob pa, Skt. prāpta) within a continuum of the five aggregates such that it will ripen its effect within that continuum. In the case of an action without acquisition, no such ripening is effectuated.
Degé: der zhugs pa zhes bya ba ni. Although the Tibetan text thus appears to join this phrase with the subsequent passage, the translation here follows the Sanskrit edition (Stuart 2015, 480–81).
Based on the bsten that appears in Choné, Lithang, Narthang, and Lhasa, and supported by the Sanskrit. Degé reads bstan.
Presumably the three unconditioned factors—analytic cessation, nonanalytic cessation, and space—which are characterized by the absence of conditioned entities.
Although all the Tibetan editions consistently read dga’, the translation here assumes dka’ in accord with the Sanskrit edition and the wording in the previous sentence (F.144.a1–2).
The Tibetan text appears to have a negation too many here: bde ba ma yin pa ma yin. This is supported by the Sanskrit (Stuart 2015, p. 524).
Translation tentative. Degé: ji tsam du sdig pa bya’i srog gcod pa ni byas gsod/ srog chags dud ka lta bu ni dud ka lta bus gsod/ rgya dang gdos kyis ri dags gsod pa rngon pa spyod pa’i ngang tshul can ni de dag gis gsod cing / de gis dbang du byas nas za ste.
The text also mentions three other animals, whose names are listed in Sanskrit transcription: *mātalaka, *mātolaka, and *dṛśyabhute. We have been unable to identify these animals.
The following description of the human conditions that resemble the sufferings in the Reviving Hell is at times unclear to us and the translation should therefore be regarded as tentative.
The Tibetan here mentions another torturous sensation: lum pa ka’i tshor ba. lum pa ka may be a Sanskrit transliteration, but we have not been able to find any comparable term.
The animal is listed in the text as *marakoṭaka (unidentified). Here and below we have translated this animal as “biting insects,” or simply “insects.”
The text here also features a seemingly Sanskrit transcription, *cālbīnaka, which we have not been able to identify.
In place of “sharp,” the Skt. reads “glistening” (pradīpta). The Sanskrit word could also mean “burning.”
Full karmic ripening results from acts that are carried out as well as accumulated. Karmic accumulation generally requires that the given act is intentional, seen through to completion, and not subsequently regretted.
The Sanskrit includes here several lines of additional text that sum up the last few paragraphs.
Translation tentative. Degé: mi yi tha ma bu yi don/ /des na sdig pa khyod kyis byas/ /gang gis sngan byas sdig byas pa/ /phyis ni gnod par mi ’gyur min.
The names “Lump,” “Copious Degeneration,” and “Crier,” could not be meaningfully matched with the Sanskrit names; possibly they are meant to correspond with the “Hell of Lumps” (piṇḍo [sic]naraka—the sense is unclear), and the “Heavy Punishment” (yātanabahula), and the Cuṭucuṭu (the meaning is unclear). The hell called “Pleading” which is included in this list of hells and increases its number to seventeen, doesn’t appear mentioned again below.
Translation tentative. Degé: gang gis byis pa gzhan du bzhin du mthus sba ba’i gnas su bcug pa. Sanskrit reads, “forcing the children of others, while they weep and cry, to stimulate one’s own genitals.”
Degé: gsod med. In the description of this hell found below, it is called “No Death” (Degé: ’chi med).
“Śālmali Forest” is absent from the list in both the Tibetan and the Sanskrit, but its description is included later on as one of the sixteen surrounding hells. It makes the number of hells in the list here sixteen.
“Eagle” is a provisional translation of dhūmika (Degé: bya dhya mi ka), which is a “smoke-colored” species of a bird of prey.
Translation tentative. Degé: sems can dmyal ba pa de cho nges ’debs pa na/ zla ba drug lus pa’i rus pa gang yin pa de dag kyang rang gi lus las byung ba’i srin bu….
Translation tentative. Degé: brgyad pa’i blo. Narthang: brgyud pa’i blo. Kangxi: brgyan pa’i blo.
Translation tentative. We have been unable to establish the precise nature of the following form of torture.
The translation of this name follows the Sanskrit, reading kālāvelā as kālavelā. The Tibetan gnod skyes suggests “Harm Arisen.”
Translation tentative. Degé: mig ’dren pa dag gis drangs pa dang / de nas yang shin tu gzhon sha can sdug par skyes te/ gnod par ches mang ba dag gis de ’byin par byed do.
Places of pilgrimage (tīrtha), here meant figuratively, are usually on the banks of sacred rivers, hence the mention of “holy water” (tīrthasalila˚). The translation of this verse remains tentative.
Translation tentative. Degé: gang me lce’i phung po bcu gcig po de dag ni bcu drug gi char yang mi phod do.
Degé here transliterates the Sanskrit pippalaka as pib pa la ka, and sūcaka as su tsa ka. The two terms can be translated, respectively, as “pin” and “needle.”
Translation tentative. Degé: cog cog por bsgyings par ’dug la skom ’thung zhing lag pa la ldag pa.
Degé: srin bu a ba mA si ka. The translation is based on reading the Sanskrit māsikā as mācikā.
Based on the bskol ba that appears in Choné, Lithang, Narthang, Yongle, and Lhasa. Degé reads bskor ba.
Based on the brkyang nul that appears in Kangxi, Lithang, Narthang, and Yongle. Degé reads skyong nul.
Translation of “fleas, or bedbugs” is tentative. Degé: srog chags mar ko Ta ka’am rkang la za ba’am.
Refers to Encircled by a Thousand Houses in Ornament of the Mind.
An Indian paṇḍita involved in translating this sūtra.
The Buddha’s teachings regarding subjects such as wisdom, psychology, metaphysics, and cosmology.
A mountain near the asura city Double Pleasure.
A city in Godānīya.
An ancient title given to ascetics, monks, hermits, and saints, namely, those who have attained the realization of a truth through their own contemplation and not by divine revelation.
Here also used as a specific epithet of the buddhas.
A pool in Dwelling on the Disk.
The four abodes of Brahmā are love, compassion, joy, and equanimity.
An ocean far beyond Jambudvīpa.
A mountain in the sea south of Jambudvīpa.
A mountain between Godānīya and Videha.
A river on Saṅkāśa.
An island in the sea west of Jambudvīpa.
King at the second level of the asuras.
A conditioned factor that according to Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma is responsible for the ripening of karmic actions subsequent to their having been performed. See also n.35.
A forest in Dwelling in Forests.
A realm of the triple-lute-bearer gods.
Indian paṇḍita referred to in the sūtra’s colophon
A forest of the asuras.
A previous ruler of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.
A river on Saṅkāśa.
A mountain in Shining in Manifold Ways.
An emanated mountain on the trunk of Airāvaṇa.
A river on Saṅkāśa.
One of sixteen realms that surround the Hell of Ultimate Torment.
Literally “pain,” “torment,” or “affliction.” In Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit it literally means “impurity” or “depravity.” In its technical use in Buddhism it means any negative quality in the mind that causes continued existence in saṃsāra. There are the 84,000 variations of mental disturbances for which the 84,000 categories of the Buddha’s teachings serve as the antidote. These mental disturbances can be subsumed into the three or five poisons of attachment, aversion, and ignorance plus arrogance and jealousy.
In the context of this sūtra, this appears to refer to the “age of perfection.”
The first of the four ages of human life in Jambudvīpa. Humans in this age enjoy good qualities such as long lifespans free from disease (see 5.238). Over the course of the four ages humans will lose a quarter of these qualities between each age.
The last of the four ages of human life in Jambudvīpa. In this age humans are endowed with only one remaining quarter of the good qualities that they had during the age of perfection.
The second of the four ages of human life in Jambudvīpa. In this age humans are endowed with three quarters of the good qualities that they had during the age of perfection.
The third of the four ages of human life in Jambudvīpa. In this age humans are endowed with two quarters, or half of the good qualities that they had during the age of perfection.
The five psycho-physical components of personal experience: form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness.
A bird that we have been unable to identify.
A righteous nāga king.
Śakra’s elephant.
A realm that neighbors the Hell of Intense Heat.
A forest upon Mount Playful in Sudharma.
A town in Videha.
A summit in Ornament of the Mind.
A river on Saṅkāśa.
The sharing of merit as food, drink, etc. is offered to members of the saṅgha.
(1) A forest of the asuras. (2) A grove in Lateral.
(1) A park in Sustained by Fruition (rtag tu dga’ ba). (2) A pleasure grove in High Conduct (rtag tu dga’ ba). (3) A pond on Equal Peaks (rtag tu mngon par dga’ ba). (4) A forest of the asuras (tin di kun dga’).
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
A lake near Mount Sumeru.
Unidentified region of India.
A land in the east of Jambudvīpa.
One of the five or six classes of sentient beings, who suffer from gross ignorance or bewilderment (gti mug, moha). They inhabit the realm of desire along with human beings.
A city in Godānīya.
A land in the east of Jambudvīpa.
’phags pa dam pa’i chos dran pa nye bar gzhag pa. Toh 287, Degé Kangyur vol. 68 (mdo sde, ya), folios 82a–318a; vol. 69 (mdo sde, ra), folios 1.b–307.a; vol. 70 (mdo sde, la), folios 1.b–312.a; and vol. 71 (mdo sde, sha), folios 1.b–229.b.
’phags pa dam pa’i chos dran pa nye bar gzhag pa. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), vol. 68, 238–842; vol. 69, 3–828; vol. 70, 3–821; and vol. 71, 3–603.
’phags pa dam pa’i chos dran pa nye bar gzhag pa. Stok Palace Kangyur, vol. 82 (mdo sde, ki), folios 1.b–378; vol. 83 (mdo sde, khi), folios 1.b–370.b; vol. 84 (mdo sde, gi), folios 1.b–383.b; and vol. 85 (mdo sde, ghi), folios 1.b–419.b.
Zhengfa nianchu jing 正法念處經. In Taishō Tripiṭaka. Edited by Junjirō Takakusu and Kaigyoku Watanabe. Vol. 17, no. 721.
Cabezón, José Ignacio. Sexuality in Classical South Asian Buddhism. Sommerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2017.
Demoto, Mitsuyo (2009). “Die 128 Nebenhöllen nach dem Saddharmasmṛ- tyupasthānasūtra.” Pāsādikadānam: Festschrift für Bhikkhu Pāsādika, edited by Martin Straube, Roland Steiner, Jayandra Soni, Michael Hahn, and Mitsuyo Demoto. Marburg: Indica et Tibetica Verlag, 2009: 61–88.
Demoto, Mitsuyo, ed. Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra: Critical Edition of Ch. 3. Unpublished draft, last modified July 2012. PDF file.
Denkarma (pho brang stod thang ldan [/ lhan] dkar gyi chos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag). Degé Tengyur, vol. 206 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Herrmann-Pfandt, Adelheid. Die lHan kar ma: ein früher Katalog der ins Tibetische übersetzten buddhistischen Texte. Vienna: Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2008.
Kritzer, Robert (Forthcoming). “Worms in Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra.” In Memorial Volume for Helmut Krasser. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kritzer, Robert (2020). “Meditation on the Body in Chapter 7 of Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra.” Religions 11, no. 6 (2020): 283.
Lin, Li-kuoung, & P. Demiéville. L’aide-mémoire de la vraie loi. Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1949.
Mizuno, Kogen. “On the Ārya-saddharmasmrtyupasthāna-sūtra.” Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies (Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyu) 12 (September 1964): 38–47.
Moretti, Costantino. “The Thirty-six Categories of ‘Hungry Ghosts’ Described in the Sūtra of the Foundations of Mindfulness of the True Law.” Fantômes dans l’Extrême-Orient D’hier et D’aujourd’hui. Edited by Vincent Durand Dastès, 43–69. Paris: INALCO, 2017.
Rangjung Dorjé (rang byung rdo rje). dam pa’i chos dran pa nye bar bzhag pa’i mdo yi don snang bar byed pa’i bstan bcos. Lhasa: bod ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang, 2010.
Stuart, Daniel M. (2012). “A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna(sūtra).” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.
Stuart, Daniel M. (2015a). A Less Traveled Path: Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra Chapter 2, Critically edited with A Study on Its Structure and Significance for the Development of Buddhist Meditation. Sanskrit Texts from the Tibetan Autonomous Region (STTAR) 18. Beijing and Vienna: China Tibetology Publishing House and Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2015.
Stuart, Daniel M. (2015b). “Power in Practice: Cosmic Sovereignty Envisioned in Buddhism’s Middle Period.” The Critical Review for Buddhist Studies 18 (2015): 165–96.
Stuart, Daniel M. (2017a). “Yogācāra Substrata? Precedent Frames for Yogācāra Thought among Third-Century Yoga Practitioners in Greater Gandhāra.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 46 (October 2017): 193–240.
Stuart, Daniel M. (2017b). “Unmanifest Perceptions: Mind-Matter Interdependence and Its Consequences in Buddhist Thought and Practice.” In Śrāvakabhūmi and Buddhist Manuscripts, edited by Jundo Nagashima and Seongcheol Kim, 109–71. Tokyo: Nombre, 2017.
Stuart, Daniel M. (2019). “Becoming Animal: Karma and the Animal Realm Envisioned through an Early Yogācāra Lens.” Religions 10, no. 6 (2019): 363.
van der Kuijp, Leonard W. J. “On the Vicissitudes of Subhūticandra’s Kāmadhenu Commentary on the Amarakoṣa in Tibet.” Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, no. 5 (December 2009): 1–105.
Wallace, Vesna A., ed. Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra: Critical Edition of Ch. 1. Unpublished draft, last modified May 10, 2020. PDF file.
While on the way to Rājagṛha to collect alms, a group of newly ordained monks are approached by some non-Buddhists, who suggest that their doctrine is identical to that of the Buddha, since everyone agrees that misdeeds of body, speech, and mind are to be given up. The monks do not know how to reply, and when they later return to the brahmin town of Nālati, where the Buddha is residing, Śāradvatīputra therefore encourages them to seek clarification from the Blessed One himself. In response to the monks’ request, the Buddha delivers a comprehensive discourse on the effects of virtuous and unvirtuous actions, explaining these matters from the perspective of an adept practitioner of his teachings, who sees and understands all this through a process of personal discovery. As the teaching progresses, the Buddha presents an epic tour of the realm of desire—from the Hell of Ultimate Torment to the Heaven Free from Strife—all the while introducing the specific human actions and attitudes that cause the experience of such worlds and outlining the ways to remedy and transcend them. In the final section of the sūtra, which is presented as an individual scripture on its own, the focus is on mindfulness of the body and the ripening of karmic actions that is experienced among humans in particular.
Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. The translation was produced by Thomas Doctor with help from Benjamin Collet-Cassart and Timothy Hinkle. Thomas also wrote the introduction. Andreas Doctor checked the translation against the Tibetan and edited the text. The 84000 editorial team subsequently reviewed the translation and made further edits. Wiesiek Mical assisted by reviewing numerous passages against the available Sanskrit sources. Robert Kritzer generously shared several unpublished articles on the text with us, and Vesna Wallace and Mitsuyo Demoto kindly gave us access to drafts of their critical Sanskrit editions of chapters 1 and 3, respectively.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The generous sponsorship of Sun Ping, Tian Xingwen, and Sun Fanglin, which helped make the work on this translation possible, is most gratefully acknowledged.
The epic discourse of The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma (AMSD) unfolds as a single, sustained reply to a short question that is put to the Buddha Śākyamuni as the sūtra opens. A group of newly ordained monks have been challenged by the members of another religious group, who suggest that the Buddha’s teachings are indistinguishable from those of their own teacher. Not knowing how to reply, the monks request that the Buddha explain how the path of the sacred Dharma is unlike any other. As the Buddha responds to the monks, he describes the path from the perspective of an adept meditating monk, who applies the Dharma teachings correctly and so discovers the truths of the Dharma. In an account that spans the full spectrum of life in saṃsāra, from the horrifying misery and intense pain of the lower realms to the enrapturing beauty and bliss in the heavens, the Buddha explains how different kinds of physical, verbal, and mental behavior of humans lead to rebirth in such realms of existence.
The generic and unnamed monk, from whose perspective the Buddha explains the subject matter, witnesses the myriad realms of existence from the Hell of Ultimate Torment to the Heaven Free from Strife, sometimes by means of the divine eye that is accomplished through meditation, and at other times through the eye of insight that is acquired through hearing the teachings. In this way, the monk comes to directly recognize the matrix of causes and effects that keeps the wheel of cyclic existence turning, and he realizes with full clarity how, throughout all this, life and beings’ experiences are utterly impermanent and always determined by their own past actions. A very substantial part of the sūtra describes the ravishing sceneries and amazing events that take place in the heavens. In the midst of these breathtaking descriptions, the sūtra frequently presents pithy teachings of the Dharma, typically given in verses that may be spoken by gods, such as Śakra, or by divine birds, such as the king of swans or the peacock king.
The account of the heavens and the actions that lead to rebirth there comes to an abrupt end in the midst of the descriptions of the Heaven Free from Strife. Instead follows, for the remainder of the scripture, a teaching on mindfulness of the body. This latter teaching, which functions mostly as an independent part of the sūtra, presents mindfulness of the body within the framework of the “internal” human body and the “external” body of the outer world. This latter section includes an elaborate description of the human realm according to Buddhist cosmology. Given the sūtra’s sudden stop in the middle of the presentation of the Heaven Free from Strife, it seems quite likely that an earlier version of the sūtra might have been significantly longer than the present version and that only a partial version was available to the Tibetan translators. If so, the missing material must, however, have been lost at a very early point in the text’s history, since the Chinese translation, which was produced earlier, during the early sixth century, features the same disjointed topical transition. In spite of this awkward end to the sūtra’s description of the heavenly realms, the discourse of the AMSD as it remains today is a vast treasury of Dharma, a rich presentation of the realms of saṃsāra, and a splendid piece of world literature that stands out as one of the greatest literary works of classical India.
With its 2158 Tibetan pages, the AMSD is the largest scripture within the general sūtra section of the Degé Kangyur, where the text is placed as the first scripture within the collection of Hīnayāna scriptures. This placement among the Hīnayāna sūtras has been a topic of some debate among Tibetans, since one finds frequent occurrences of the term “Mahāyāna” within the sūtra’s later sections. Notably, however, the term is only found in the Tibetan translation of the sūtra, not in the Chinese translation. Moreover, the Tibetan translator of the sūtra, Patshap Tsultrim Gyaltsen (eleventh–twelfth c.), himself classified the text as a Mahāyāna scripture in his colophon to the sūtra. Still, the editor of the Degé Kangyur, Situ Paṇchen Chökyi Jungné (1700–1774) classified the sūtra as belonging to the Hīnayāna, basing himself on the earlier classification of Butön Rinchen Drup (1290–1364), the famous compiler of the Kangyur. Butön in turn seems to have relied on the Denkarma inventory (compiled in 812), which likewise classifies the sūtra as a Hīnayāna scripture.
According to its lengthy and very informative colophon, the Tibetan translation of the sūtra that is preserved in the Degé Kangyur was produced during the reign of the Indian king Rāmapāla (ca. 1077–1120). In his colophon, the Tibetan translator Tsultrim Gyaltsen mentions that the translation is based on several earlier incomplete draft translations. At least some of these had been produced already, during the earlier Tibetan translation efforts of the eighth and ninth centuries, as attested by the text’s inclusion in the Denkarma inventory. Tsultrim Gyaltsen further mentions that he worked on the translation together with a large team of Indian paṇḍitas, among whom he makes specific mention of Śāntākaragupta, Abhayākaragupta, Śakyarakṣita, Vīryākaraśānti, Subhūticandra, and Aḍitacandra. He also says that he was further assisted by two other Tibetan scholars, Shang Buchikpa and Sherap Ö. In spite of his prominent role in producing this translation of the AMSD, Patshap Tsultrim Gyaltsen does not appear to have translated any other texts contained in the Kangyur. We do, however, find a Tsultrim Gyaltsen, who may very likely be the same person, listed as the translator of a number of tantric practice manuals contained in the Tengyur, at times working with the paṇḍita named Abhayākaragupta (who we just saw was involved in the translation of the AMSD). Apart from such brief listings of his name, however, we sadly have no other information available about this important figure in the history of Tibetan Buddhism.
The single extant Sanskrit manuscript of the AMSD is supposedly kept today at the Norbulingka in Lhasa, although no official information is available about this and physical access to the manuscript appears to be highly restricted. Photographs of the manuscript have recently been shared among a small group of scholars in the West, but these photos are also not freely accessible at present. According to Daniel Stuart, the date of composition of the sūtra in India can be established to be somewhere between 150 and 400
A critical edition and English translation of the Sanskrit text pertaining to the first part of chapter 2 (according to the Tibetan chapter structure) has been published by Stuart. Critical editions of chapter 1 and the section on the hell realms in the latter part of chapter 2 are currently being prepared by Vesna Wallace and Mitsuyo Demoto, respectively. As we prepared this English translation we consulted Stuart’s critical Sanskrit edition and English translation of that section of the text, which proved to be very beneficial for our translation. Wallace and Demoto also both kindly shared their draft Sanskrit editions with us, which likewise was very helpful for our work. For a detailed discussion of the sūtra’s textual history and the Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan manuscripts, we refer the interested reader to Stuart’s doctoral thesis on the AMSD (2012) and his later published version of his thesis (2015a).
Short references to the AMSD, its teaching on impermanence, and its calls to renunciation are quite frequent in the Tibetan scholarly tradition. Most notably, Karmapa III, Rangjung Dorjé (1284–1339), produced a large compendium to the sūtra. Modern scholarship on the AMSD was first undertaken by Lin and Demiéville (1949) but has recently been greatly advanced through the publications of Stuart (2012, 2015a, 2015b, 2017a). Stuart’s recent work provides a wealth of information regarding the available textual witnesses and analysis of some of the heterogeneous doctrinal developments that find expression in the AMSD. In addition to her forthcoming critical Sanskrit edition of chapter 3, Demoto (2009) has also published a study of the names of the various hell realms that occur in this chapter. Robert Kritzer is currently preparing a Tibetan critical edition and English translation of the final (autonomous) section of the AMSD, which concerns mindfulness of the body (chapter 7 according to the Chinese chapter division). Kritzer also kindly shared his unpublished paper (forthcoming) on the AMSD’s complex presentation of “worms” that are described in the sūtra as inhabiting the human body. Recently, in his book on sexuality in Indian Buddhism, José Cabezón has also discussed the lengthy presentation of the hells that we find in the AMSD, where several hells are described as the ripened results of various forms of sexual misconduct.
In producing this English translation, we have based our work on the Degé xylograph while consulting the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma), as well as the Stok Palace manuscript. It goes without saying that we do not see our translation as definitive, or final, in any way. As the publications of Stuart, Kritzer, and Demoto have clearly demonstrated, there is a dizzying amount of philological detail to consider in the Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan witnesses of the AMSD. As our aim has been to produce a complete English translation of the more than 2100 pages contained in the Tibetan text, we have unfortunately not been able to study these textual details of the sūtra to the degree that learned scholars would otherwise expect. We therefore sincerely apologize for any errors and shortcomings this English translation may contain. We nevertheless hope that, in spite of its imperfections, this publication may prove useful for scholars, as well as members of the general public, who wish to explore and study this amazing discourse. As further studies on this sūtra are published in the future, the present translation surely also stands to benefit. With its poetic beauty, philosophical profundity, and gripping presentation of the world as perceived by Buddhists in early medieval India, the AMSD certainly deserves the attention of the contemporary world.
III. Chapter 3
(iii) The Heaven Free from Strife
i. The Gods in Moving in Gatherings
q. The Gods in Living by Rājanina
[V68] [B1] Homage to all the buddhas, bodhisattvas, solitary buddhas, and noble hearers!
Thus did I hear at one time. While the Blessed One was residing in the brahmin quarter of the village of Nālati near Rājagṛha, venerable Śāradvatīputra one morning went to Rājagṛha together with a great gathering of monks to collect alms. As they were out receiving alms, a large group of the monks came across some wandering non-Buddhist practitioners who were on the way to the same destination, and together they engaged in a Dharma discussion to everyone’s delight and appreciation.
During their discussions some of the non-Buddhists asked, “Ah, you Śākya followers, does not your mendicant Gautama teach that misdeeds of the body are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and that one should refrain from rejoicing in them even when they are done by another? We also consider misdeeds of the body to be unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and we do not rejoice in them even when done by others. Does not your mendicant Gautama teach that misdeeds of speech are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and that one should refrain from rejoicing in them even when done by another? We also consider misdeeds of speech to be unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and we do not rejoice in them even when done by others. Does not your mendicant Gautama teach that misdeeds of the mind are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and that one should refrain from rejoicing in them even when done by another? We also consider misdeeds of the mind to be unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and we do not rejoice in them even when done by others. What difference is there [F.82.b] between your mendicant Gautama’s Dharma-Vinaya and our own? What are the ideas? What are the distinctive points? What makes the Dharma-Vinaya of your mendicant Gautama superior to ours? The mendicant Gautama claims that he is omniscient.”
When faced with these questions by the wandering non-Buddhist practitioners, the group of newly ordained monks neither approved nor responded because the venerable Śāradvatīputra was absent. Once they had completed their alms round, the large group of monks returned to the town of Nālati where they had their meal and then took their places amid the gathering of monks.
Later, venerable Śāradvatīputra also returned to the town of Nālati, having received his alms. When he arrived, the great gathering of monks went to see him and related to him what had transpired. Venerable Śāradvatīputra said, “If I had been traveling with you, venerable ones, and had met those wandering non-Buddhist practitioners along the Rājagṛha highway, at a crossing, or at a fork in the road, I would have defeated them in accordance with the Dharma. But unfortunately, I did not witness what transpired in your discussion with those wandering non-Buddhist practitioners.
“Venerable ones, the eyes of the Blessed One perceive everything directly. He understands actions, their effects, and their ripening. At present he is residing not far from here. Subduing all those whose views are extreme, he is teaching the Dharma of actions and their ripening results to hearers and laypeople, gods and humans. You must bring what happened before him. He will teach you everything about actions and their ripening. He will teach you that which is not seen by any god, māra, Brahmā, mendicant, brahmin, or any other being. What we fail to see the Blessed One sees directly. With his knowledge of actions and their ripening results, he will teach you.”
The large group of monks then set off to see the Blessed One and came upon him during his afternoon rest. He was seated like Mount Sumeru, shining brightly within a sphere of light. The Blessed One was resplendent like the sun at noon, peaceful and soothing like the moon at night. He was clear like a lake, deep like the sea, unshakable like Mount Sumeru, and dauntless like a lion. Like a parent, he was the refuge for all. With his mind permeated by great compassion, he was the universal friend of all beings. He was an abode of love, compassion, joy, and equanimity. With his body adorned by the thirty-seven great factors of awakening, its radiance delighted the eyes of all who beheld him. Outshining the light of the sun and the moon, the son of the Śākya king was endowed with universal vision, and his eyes were free of the three stains. He had taught the two truths, comprehended the twofold suffering, accomplished and actualized the two cultivations, realized the result of the path, and gained the knowledge of the reality of cessation. Endowed with eyes that perceive the three realms directly, he revealed the three realms to others. He had fathomed the real nature of the eighteen elements. He knew the essence of the inspired mind. He was endowed with the eighteen floods of unique qualities, liberated from the bonds of existence, in possession of the ten powers, fearless with the four types of fearlessness, endowed with great compassion, and constantly in possession of the threefold application of mindfulness.
The many monks draped their Dharma robes over their shoulders, knelt on their right knees, and bowed their heads to the Blessed One’s feet. Calmly and with heads bowed, they then stood to one side. A monk who had been appointed by the large gathering now stepped forth and approached the Blessed One. When he was very close to the Blessed One, he bowed his head to his feet. He then respectfully conveyed to the Blessed One how, in the morning, the monks had dressed in their Dharma robes, picked up their alms bowls, and gone to Rājagṛha to receive alms. He recounted how they had met the wandering non-Buddhist practitioners, and how the latter had begun to discuss physical, verbal, and mental misdeeds, up to the questions they had asked.
When the monk had finished his account, the Blessed One spoke the following words to the monks, as well as to the brahmins of Nālati, and the others: “Monks, I shall explain for you a teaching of the Dharma that is known as Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma. Auspicious in the beginning, the middle, and the end, this teaching is of profound meaning and conveyed in excellent words. Unique, complete, and pure, it explains the perfect training and pure conduct. Listen keenly and keep in mind what I say. I shall explain this for you.”
“Blessed One,” replied the monks, “we shall do just as you instruct.”
As the monks listened, the Blessed One now spoke: “Monks, you may wonder what is meant by the Dharma teaching known as Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma. Well, it is to remain constantly mindful of seeing Dharma as Dharma and non-Dharma as non-Dharma, while not having any doubts. It is to delight in listening to the Dharma, and to venerate one’s elders. This yields knowledge of the effects of the karmic actions of body, speech, and mind, and of the ripening of those actions in terms of death and rebirth. One’s view thereby becomes unmistaken and impervious to being swayed by others.
“Monks, there are three misdeeds of the body: killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. What, then, is killing? To take a life is to recognize another sentient being as a sentient being and knowingly slay it. Such an act may be of a great, intermediate, or minor kind. Great killing is the murder of a worthy one or the like. Such acts lead to the Hell of Ultimate Torment. Intermediate killing occurs when one murders someone on the path. Minor killing is to kill an animal or someone of degenerate moral conduct.
“An act of killing can also be categorized with respect to the past, future, or present, or in terms of whether that act is carried out due to desire, anger, or delusion. Of these latter, killing out of desire occurs in hunting deer and other game. Killing out of hatred occurs in killing a snake, a mongoose, or the like. Killing due to delusion occurs in sacrificial killings and the like. Killing can likewise be categorized in terms of acts done by oneself, acts ordered by others, and acts done both by oneself and on the order of others.
“In five cases killing will not incur any stain of evil: unwittingly killing insects, ants, and so forth that happen to be in one’s a path; unintentionally striking and killing someone with a weapon; dispensing the wrong type of medicine to a sick person, thereby accidently causing the person’s death while trying to help; as a mother, causing the death of one’s child by disciplinary beating; and unintentionally causing living beings to die due to their falling into fire. When killing occurs under these five circumstances there will not be any stain.
“Further, killing may take place, again in three ways, by contracting others to do it, by performing the deed oneself, or by both of these methods.
“What is understood by a complete act of stealing? A spiritual practitioner, who observes and adheres to the Dharma, may understand this through having received teachings or having seen it to be the case by means of the divine eye. A complete act of stealing is to rob something that belongs to another with the intention of making it one’s own.
“Which acts of this kind will have a minor effect? If one takes what was not given due to compliance with a royal decree; or if one takes what was not given for the sake of one’s guru, one’s sick parents, a solitary buddha, a worthy one, a non-returner, a stream enterer, or the like; or if one does so for the sake of the sick or the hungry. In such cases there will be a minor ripening of the act. Such cases of taking what was not given, when performed by someone who has not taken vows to take what was not given, also involve only a minor ripening. Minor effects will also arise when one takes what was not given, but then mentally confesses, feels remorse, and abstains in the future, and when one prevents others from taking what was not given, confers vows upon them, establishes them upon the path, and establishes them in the practice of abstaining from taking what was not given. Similarly, only minor effects occur when the preparations, act, or conclusion is incomplete.
“What are the preparations for stealing? They involve deceiving the victim, giving secret instructions, engaging in fraud, or some other form of inappropriate activity. What is the act itself? It is to take the possessions of another without them being given. What is the act’s conclusion? This consists in rejoicing in, becoming habituated to, and increasing the act; rejoicing in the act while keeping it hidden; and making other disciplined individuals engage in such an act. When a misdeed of stealing lacks any of these three aspects, which include preparations and conclusion, its effect will be minor and experienced in indeterminate ways.
“What is sexual misconduct? This is understood by a spiritual practitioner who observes phenomena. Such a person will see that sexual misconduct occurs when one penetrates one’s own wife, or another man’s wife, through an opening other than the vagina, or when one rejoices in others performing such an act, or when one makes others engage in it even while refraining from doing so oneself.
“In which cases will the effects of sexual misconduct be minor? When the act is regretted and confessed, when one does not rejoice in it, when one discourages others from engaging in sexual misconduct and establishes them on the path, and when the preparation or conclusion is incomplete. When such factors of intention and discipline are present the effects of an act of sexual misconduct will be minor and their experience indeterminate. When the three misdeeds of the body are of this kind their effects are lesser and weak.
“Only those who hear these points from my hearers or from myself will understand the whole matter of karmic actions and their ripening effects. Thus, they will not be swayed by the accounts of others, but become independent. These points are not realized by wandering non-Buddhist practitioners. Neither are they realized by the world with its gods; nor by the māras; nor by Brahmā, mendicants, and brahmins; nor by gods, humans, and asuras.
“What are the misdeeds of speech? Spiritual practitioners who understand phenomena, as well as karmic actions and their maturation, will know that there are four misdeeds of speech: lying, divisive talk, harsh words, and chatter.
“What is lying? Lying is to deceive oneself and others. Thus, when one expresses false complaints before a king or minister and so unjustly brings harm or ruin upon others, that constitutes a complete verbal misdeed of lying. Such acts lead sentient beings to experience life in hell.
“What is the misdeed of speech known as divisive talk? If, with the intention to sow discord, one speaks to a group that is otherwise in agreement on a certain subject, that is a verbal misdeed of divisive talk. How can the effects of divisive talk be lessened? By confession, thinking, ‘In my delusion I have done wrong!’; by hindering those who delight in sowing discord and by establishing them on the path; or by refraining from the act’s preparations or conclusion.
“What are the preparations for such an act? They consist in speaking to others out of a delight in sowing discord and the affliction of haughtiness. What is the course of action in terms of divisive talk? It is to repeatedly rejoice and delight in disharmony based on an aggressive mind. When is the conclusion of such an act complete? It is complete when one rejoices in a performed act of divisive talk; when one anticipates further, repeated engagements in such acts with excitement and pleasure; and when one does not wish to rectify this inclination. This mental state is one of aggression. When examined by others, one will be deemed untrustworthy and scorned. Such an act exposes one as being shameless and without any sense of embarrassment or self-criticism. This is the verbal misdeed of divisive talk.
“What is the misdeed of harsh words? Spiritual practitioners who see phenomena, karmic actions, and their origin will understand this by means of knowledge derived from hearing. In this regard, harsh words bring harm to oneself and impact others by creating the occasion for them to hear unpleasant words. Such acts ripen in various ways, depending on whether they were concealed or confessed, or whether they were done in a spirit of jest or malice. The severe forms of harsh words cause the experience of life in hell, yet through confession the resultant experience can become indeterminate. This is the third verbal misdeed. The preparations, conclusion, and full possession are as described above.
“What is the fourth verbal misdeed? Spiritual practitioners who comprehend numerous forms of karmic action, phenomena, and ripening recognize chatter to be pointless and unrelated babble. The resultant experiences are indeterminate, and the act involves less evil. Such is the fourth verbal misdeed.
“What are mental misdeeds, and how many of them are there? Spiritual practitioners who consider karmic action, phenomena, and ripening know by means of knowledge derived from hearing that there are three mental misdeeds. They understand that covetousness occurs when one sees the possessions of others, and that gives rise to thinking, craving, and the idea that ‘those things should be mine.’ Such covetousness is the first among the mental misdeeds.
“There is also ill will, which is to give rise to a hostile and aggressive state of mind when seeing others’ agreeable circumstances. That is the second mental misdeed.
“The third mental misdeed is wrong view, a mistaken perception of things. This has two aspects: denying what is, and misunderstanding. Denying what is means to deny the relevance of such things as generosity, fire offerings, and sacrificial worship, or that good and bad deeds will ripen into karmic consequences. Misunderstanding is the belief that happiness and suffering are bestowed by gods and not the result of karmic action. That is the second form of wrong view.
“If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases these ten misdeeds that pertain to body, speech, and mind, their consequences may become certain as they ripen in the present life. The karmic effects may also be experienced in accordance with the causal actions following one’s death and rebirth into another realm, or they may be experienced in various ways following rebirth in this realm. How is that? A spiritual practitioner who considers karmic action, phenomena, and ripening will understand this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye.
“Killing is the first of the misdeeds of the body. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases the amount of killing, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will have a short life. If, for example, one is a hunter who has killed due to attachment, one will suffer a downfall because of that. Having become a deer, pig, partridge, chicken, pheasant, fish, or the like, one will be killed by a trap or a hook. Such are the causal relationships associated with the acts of killing in cyclic existence. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one’s life will be short. One will not be born in a land of wise people and instead one’s birthplace will be plagued by many armed conflicts. There, one will soon be killed. Here is a verse on lesser, intermediate, and severe killing:
“Such is the ripening of the act of killing in terms of the present life.
“Resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing acts of stealing yields three forms of ripening: the experience of life in hell, present life consequences, and concordant effects in future lives. What are these like? Spiritual practitioners who consider karmic action, phenomena, and ripening perceive this based on the knowledge derived from hearing. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases acts of stealing, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will be destitute. Whatever enjoyable things one might have will be taken by punitive legislation, water, fire, weapons, robbers, or thieves. Thus, whatever one may have gathered will be wasted and what is obtained will not yield any enjoyment. These are the three effects of stealing.
“What are the three effects of resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing acts of sexual misconduct? Spiritual practitioners who observe karmic action, phenomena, and ripening will perceive the following either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases acts of sexual misconduct, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. If one is born as a human, the causally concordant effect will be such that one’s spouse is disrespectful, one becomes a hermaphrodite, or one is held in contempt by the world.
“Such are the threefold effects of the ripening of the three physical misdeeds. However, the wandering non-Buddhist practitioners do not accept any of this, from the physical misdeeds up to and including their ripening. Why is that? Because those who develop and cultivate ignorance do not perceive my teaching on karmic action, phenomena, and ripening. However, my hearers and my spiritual practitioners do see this.
“Furthermore, what is meant by a spoken or verbal misdeed? What forms does it assume? Spiritual practitioners who abide by the observation of phenomena perceive four verbal misdeeds by means of knowledge derived from hearing: lying, divisive talk, harsh words, and chatter. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases acts of lying one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, others will disregard what one has to say. Nobody will listen, whether in royal courts, among householders, amid the nobility, or even in the company of one’s own children and spouse. One’s breath will carry a foul odor, and one’s teeth, mouth, complexion, and skin will be unpleasant to behold. Mistreated by all worldly individuals, one will live in perpetual fear. Family, friends, and loved ones will be unreliable. All projects one undertakes will come to naught, and one will instead be driven to pursue all sorts of meaningless activities. Such are the unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant karmic effects of the act of lying.
“What are the effects of resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing the second verbal misdeed? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases divisive talk one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among human beings, sharing in their good fortune, one may be dumb, deaf, or suffer from bad breath. Nobody will trust one’s words and one will become the laughingstock of all. One’s facial complexion will be unattractive. One will be unable to feel at ease at any single location. One’s mind will be restless yet rigid. Such is the misdeed of divisive talk.
“What are the effects of resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing harsh words? These are understood either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases harsh words, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will not be consoled by anyone. Constantly the target of everyone’s abuse, one will not be offered relief by anyone. Not a single word of appreciation will come from one’s own children or spouse. Like a deer, one will have to live in fear of all humans. Without access to spiritual teachers, one will fall in with bad company. These three are the effects of harsh words.
“What is it like to resort to, become habituated to, and increase the misdeed of chatter? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena will perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. When resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing chatter, one will end up in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will not be appreciated by others but will be considered unimportant. Whether at the royal palace or in the homes of family and friends, one will be looked at as one gone mad. Such is the misdeed of chatter.
“What is it like to resort to, become habituated to, and increase the three mental misdeeds? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena will understand this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases covetousness, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, all that one accumulates will be seized by the authorities, or destroyed by water or fire. Thus, one will live in constant poverty.
“What is it like to resort to, become habituated to, and increase the mental misdeed of ill will? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena will perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. When resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing ill will, one will end up in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will be born in rocky mountains, among barbarians who are constantly afflicted by armed conflict, and one will live in permanent fear. Continuously one will suffer from falling down into a precipices. One’s mind will never be at ease and all sorts of harm will continuously befall one.
“What is it like to resort to, become habituated to, and increase the mental misdeed of wrong view? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena will perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. Resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing wrong views will lead to the experience of the whole gamut of suffering that is associated with life in hells such as that of Ultimate Torment. Moreover, one will go from one animal life to the next billions of times, and the same will occur within the realm of starving spirits. In the rare event that one is born among humans and shares the fortune of humans, one will nevertheless encounter thousands of variations of the flaws that are taught with respect to these unvirtuous actions.
“Moreover, when one contemplates the very subtle aspects of the ten unvirtuous actions in other ways, one will understand how they lead sentient beings to roam through the realms of hell beings, starving spirits, and animals. Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye.
“In this regard, you may wonder how one may resort to, become habituated to, and increase acts of killing.
“Regarding the first of these, one may associate with negative companions, students, or friends who kill. One may enjoy their company, fool around with them, work with them, and stay with them. One may find such people trustworthy and in possession of good qualities, and thus adopt their behavior. Unvirtuous teachers and students who have the habit of killing people will tell all sorts of stories to justify killing. These are not the path and only lead others to indulge in killing. In this manner, they may tell stories about sacrificial offerings, stories about wild game, or wicked stories based on their gustatory cravings. Similarly, they may tell stories about retaliation against hostile adversaries or relations, or stories based on their craving for these people’s belongings. Similarly, taking great in delight in affliction, they will tell stories based on their craving for material things or about deeds for acquiring fame. In these ways, they lead others on. If one trusts and adheres to such people, one may also end up resorting to killing. Resorting to killing results in entering the realms of hell beings, starving spirits, and animals. Such effects are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and are condemned by all wise people. Even if one is born human, one’s life will be short. Thus, the taking of life stemming from a wicked teacher makes one become totally habituated to killing.
“What does it mean to become habituated to unwholesome people? Based on the taking of life that is influenced by unwholesome people as just described, one rejoices in, appreciates, contemplates, and condones acts of killing. Setting one’s mind on killing, one succeeds in slaying others by numerous means. Without counting it as a fault and condemning it, one delights in killing and does not refrain from it. In this way, killing becomes second nature. Those who otherwise have the habit of not killing will be drawn into the practice of killing. One will also engage in the kinds of conversation, and so on, alluded to previously. This is what it is like to grow habituated to killing.
“What does it mean to increase killing? Once habituated to killing in the way just described, one may associate with evil companions and thereby greatly expand one’s murderous activities. Thus, one may craft poisonous arrows, gather dogs and raptors, and accept the protection of barbarous people. Fond of warfare, one may wear chain mail, weapons, swords, lances, axes, disks, helmets, and so on—thus adopting all possible instruments for killing others. Such is the person who increases killing.
“Through such causes, bases, and conditions one will be born in the realms of hell beings, animals, and starving spirits, and so be tormented by unbearable harm. Based on whether one’s killing was minor, intermediate, or severe, there will be a corresponding experience of minor, intermediate, or severe ripening.
“Whenever an act has been carried out and accumulated it will also ripen. Therefore, acts that were done by oneself will also be experienced by oneself. Hence, if one has become disenchanted with cyclic existence one should give up evil acts and pursue what is virtuous. These are the explanations of resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing the taking of life.
“How does one resort to, become habituated to, and increase acts of stealing? How does resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing such acts lead to the experience of life in hell?
“People whose discipline has degenerated will naturally be disposed to thievery. When they associate with negative companions or students they will engage in minor, intermediate, or great acts of stealing. Minor acts of stealing occur as described earlier, when one takes others’ possessions out of fear of otherwise being punished by the authorities. Intermediate acts occur when one steals smaller things as long as one does not steal from a field of excellence. Even if a minor thing is taken from the Buddha, Dharma, or Saṅgha, the result will be great. However, if one has improperly taken from the Buddha, Dharma, or Saṅgha but later makes proportionate offerings to them, the negative act can be purified, especially in the case of the Buddha and the Dharma. If one steals from the saṅgha, it cannot be purified without experiencing some painful effects because the saṅgha is a field with a particularly strong karmic charge. If one steals a means of sustenance from the congregation one will fall into the great hells. If one steals something else from the congregation, one will instead be born in one of the hells that surround that of Ultimate Torment, such as Great Darkness.
“If one takes up, resorts to, rejoices in, becomes habituated to, and increases stealing, even minor forms of stealing will lead to birth among hell beings, animals, and starving spirits. If one does not develop attachment to and rejoice in the act, and instead regrets it, the ripening will become indeterminate.
“Resorting to stealing occurs when someone who is inclined to take what was not given engages in various ways in acts of thievery.
“What is meant by becoming habituated to stealing? Having obtained something that was stolen, one may rejoice and delight in the robbers and thieves, and happily consume or employ what was stolen. Considering such conduct to be a good quality, one may encourage and help others to steal. This is becoming habituated to stealing.
“How is stealing increased? This occurs when one steals in order to enjoy linens, food, drink, clothing, jewelry, beverages, prostitutes, and ornaments. Delighted, one may think, ‘Among all pleasures, those which comes from stealing are the best!’ With such thoughts one enjoys linens, food, drink, clothing, jewelry, beverages, prostitutes, and ornaments. Thinking, ‘I must continue stealing because it brings me so much pleasure,’ one then proceeds as described above. This is what it means to increase the act of stealing and as a result of that it is certain that sentient beings will experience life in a hell.
“What does it mean to resort to, become habituated to, and increase acts of sexual misconduct? Overcome by an inappropriate mentality, one may become a type of being with a propensity for desire such as a swallow, duck, pheasant, parrot, peafowl, partridge, fish, or smoky creatures. When such beings die and transfer out of the family of asuras they may be born among humans and associate with bad companions who are full of desire. With them they may then have inappropriate sexual relationships. Being mistaken in these two ways, they are filled with attachment, and they act in inappropriate ways to sate their insatiable desires. This makes it impossible for the gandharvas, otherwise destined to be born there, to take birth, because it desecrates the birthplace. Such are the reasons why sexual misconduct, which is based on improper desire, is a misdeed.
“Resorting to sexual misconduct occurs when a person with an inordinate desire for carnal contact indulges in such acts and continuously repeats them, finding intense gratification in physical sensations. What does it mean to become habituated to sexual misconduct? This refers to repeatedly engaging in sexual misconduct and thinking about it, becoming so infatuated with it that one gives up other pleasures only to focus on sexual misconduct and the object of one’s desire. What is meant by increasing sexual misconduct? Infantile, ordinary beings consumed by inappropriate mental activity feel that sexual misconduct is the best thing possible and they think that it is a mistake to classify such behavior as a form of misconduct. Instead they regard sexual misconduct as a supreme quality and therefore encourage many others to engage in it. That is what it means to increase sexual misconduct. These three physical misdeeds are unvirtuous actions in which infantile, ordinary beings engage.
“What about the four verbal misdeeds: lying, divisive talk, harsh words, and chatter?
“Lying is to deceive oneself and others, for by speaking lies one does indeed deceive both oneself and others. There are five causes for lying: desire, anger, fear, personal gain, and indoctrination into the prescribed practices of a misguided religion. How does one lie? Whether at the royal court, in an assembly of householders, or among one’s relatives, one may lie to both those who are dear to oneself and those who are not. One may lie to those who are dear to oneself out of desire and to those who are not dear to oneself out of anger. One may also lie for the sake of personal gain and for the sake of wealth.
“Moreover, indoctrination into the prescribed practices of a misguided religion is also a way of lying. For example, brahmins may declare that lying will not carry any blemish as long as it is done to obtain desirable qualities, or to safeguard one’s wealth, protect one’s life, or obtain a bride. Such declarations are a form of lying by means of indoctrination into the discipline of a misguided religion, and through such indoctrination into ignorant and wrong views one will come to live in an unbearable hell. Since lying plants the seeds of the hell realms it is best to entirely avoid any form of lying, even at the expense of one’s own life or that of others.
“One may also tell lies out of fear, as when someone thinks, ‘Unless I lie now, I may expose my life to serious danger for no reason.’ In such cases one lies motivated by fear.
“Thus, these five factors cause infantile beings to lie. All of them are based on delusion.
“At this point, there are some verses:
“Therefore, regardless of the causes and conditions, one should refrain from lying and should not rejoice in lies told by others, either.
“Nor should one seek out, take part in, or participate in conversations with liars, lest others will think that one is a liar oneself. Thus, if one befriends people who are fond of tainted activities, others will come to think of oneself as tainted as well. That is to say, one ought not keep negative company. Negative company leads to bondage in cyclic existence and birth in the realms of hell beings, starving spirits, and animals. Virtuous company, on the other hand, leads to supreme liberation. This is a brief explanation of lying.
“What is divisive talk and what forms does it assume? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. Divisive talk occurs when words are spoken to sow discord among those who otherwise enjoyed harmonious relationships. There are two forms of divisive talk: direct and indirect. That is to say, one might instruct someone to cause a rift among two people so that they become enemies or adversaries, or one might also seek to do so personally.
“What then are harsh words, and what forms do they assume? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. Harsh words are harmful to oneself and others. They are the concordant cause of anger, and they are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant to listen to. They involve desire, anger, and delusion, and they are engaged in by all infantile, ordinary individuals. They take numerous forms and involve numerous observations, causes, mental states, and types of ripening, as well as numerous ways of destroying the joyful destinations. They make everyone unhappy and they cause and support anger in the world. They provoke destruction, breed distrust and unkindness, and emerge from a poisonous tongue. Thus, the stains of harsh words are to be avoided by all who practice pure conduct.
“At this point, there are some verses:
“Moreover, spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena understand chatter, the fourth verbal misdeed. What forms does chatter assume? Chatter is unrelated babble, the expression of random words based on shallow thinking. Some forms of chatter are careless, whereas others are not. By engaging in chatter, one will be considered untrustworthy in this life, and the people of the world will despise one’s course of activities. Chatter is pointless prattle, and thus one ought to refrain from either directly or indirectly engaging in, or rejoicing in, this fourth verbal stain. And neither should one keep company with those who engage in chatter.
“Covetousness, ill will, and wrong view belong to the path of unvirtuous mental acts.
“Among these, covetousness is the state of being mentally and verbally obsessed with the substances and features of wealth procured by others, thinking, ‘This should be mine!’ Covetousness is that form of inappropriate mental engagement that is an impulsive reaction to, and craving for, the fine circumstances of others. Covetousness is an unvirtuous action, and its ripening is unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant. Covetousness fools restless and untrained, childish beings by creating a compulsive obsession with the fine circumstances of others. Thus, one seeks to obtain their fine circumstances, repeatedly and all-encompassingly, while wishing for and craving them to the extent that the very perception of such circumstances becomes painful. This is covetousness, a great stain among mental actions.
“How does the mental state of ill will constitute a negative course of action? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by means of the divine eye. They see how the illusory mental flaw of ill will may arise when observing others, regardless of whether they are excellent or not. Thus, one might act as one pleases with regard to that illusion, and so sustain an extremely severe mental flaw. Such ill will leads to the experience of life in hell. It is like hail to the crops of virtuous qualities and is antithetical to the eye of true insight. This fire within the heart of darkness burns away spiritual discipline. It is a cause of ugliness and cuts through the supports for the Dharma. It is the enemy of both this world and the worlds to come. It destroys one-pointedness, combats love, and demolishes the noble one’s four truths of suffering, origin, path, and cessation. Ill will is the supreme harbinger of life in hell. Ill will is therefore abandoned by all holy beings, noble hearers, and people in pursuit of learning.
“What is the function of wrong view, this darkness that grows in the hearts of beings in the form of negative beliefs that run counter to the sacred Dharma? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. Wrong view has been present and has arisen since time without beginning. It is the cause of becoming a hell being, a starving spirit, or an animal. It is pitch-black darkness. It is a fondness for negative beliefs. It is antithetical to the genuine path. It is like a weapon, fire, poison, and an abyss. It destroys all beings. It is a view that is wrong and mistaken.
“There are two kinds of wrong view: those that accept the existence of conditions and those that deny karmic actions and results. To accept conditions is to claim that all happiness and suffering is the result of actions carried out by oneself. To deny karmic actions and results is to deny the relevance of generosity, and so forth. Thus, as the basis of all ten unvirtuous actions, wrong view functions as the fundamental destroyer of all meaningful objectives. [B2]
“Having turned away from the path of these ten unvirtuous actions, how does one instead engage in defiled or undefiled acts? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by means of the divine eye. Unvirtuous actions lead to bondage in cyclic existence and the exhaustion of Dharma. Virtue, on the other hand, is what causes liberation. Giving up killing, one gives freedom from fear to all the beings in cyclic existence. One will be praised in the present life, have a beautiful countenance, enjoy bright faculties, and carry out acts that engender longevity. Those who day and night protect even harmful creatures such as rākṣasas, piśācas, or kumbhāṇḍas of different kinds will thereafter be protected by the gods, and when they separate from their bodies, they will be born in the joyful divine realms. If you want to experience the effect of such ripening, then know that such experience is proportionate to your diligence.
“If one wishes to experience the minor, intermediate, or great paths of awakening, then this is how they follow. Dedication toward the awakening of a hearer will turn one into a worthy one and one will go completely beyond suffering. Dedication toward intermediate awakening will make one a solitary buddha. If one’s dedication is toward unsurpassable and perfect awakening, one will become a perfect buddha. Endowed with knowledge and its support, one will become a well-gone one, a knower of the world, a steersman who tames beings, an unexcelled one, a teacher of gods and humans, a blessed buddha.
“Life is the root of all qualities. Hence, protecting life is a gift that grants all forms of happiness. Among all forms of generosity, the mental state of wishing to give life is supreme. Among all forms of discipline, the discipline of giving life is the supreme way to gain rebirth in the higher realms. If the practice of such discipline is dedicated toward the enjoyment of objects that serve as causes of affliction and craving, then one will become Brahmā, Māra, or Śakra. If it is dedicated to becoming a great human being, then one will become a universal monarch, possessing the seven treasures and ruling the four continents. If it is dedicated to becoming a great asura, one will rule the realm of the asuras. If it is dedicated to becoming a great yakṣa one will rule the realm of the yakṣas. This great compassion is the seed of the sacred Dharma. It is a protection against cyclic existence and a lamp for those who are lost in the darkness of cyclic existence. Such is the practice of refraining from killing. By giving up killing one cultivates love and becomes a compassionate being. Deciding to refrain from killing brings purity and joy. When one is unable to actually save others, one should remain impartial. This will make one’s mind rest in the four abodes of Brahmā.
“In essence, the roots of virtue that ensue from having given up killing are inconceivable because they accomplish whatever aim one may dedicate them to in whatever applicable way. As an analogy, when an expert goldsmith works with fine gold, he can turn it into anything he wants: ornaments, vases, human figures, or buddha figures. Similarly, someone who guards against killing and maintains that practice unerringly without violating it may accomplish whatever aim he or she is dedicated to in whatever applicable way. Thus, those who give up killing are close to the transcendence of suffering. They will enjoy the company of spiritual teachers and possess the fortune of benefiting themselves and others. They are a field of merit for hell beings, animals, and starving spirits. Within cyclic existence they possess and follow the Dharma. They will accomplish the ideals of those who possess the Dharma and also become stable in this accomplishment. They are not frightened or oppressed by rulers, robbers, water, or fire. Rather, they find joy within. They are seen as unassailable by other peers who possess the Dharma. Thus, killing should be given up.
“What goodness comes of refraining from stealing? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this by means of knowledge derived from hearing or through the divine eye. By giving up stealing one will escape the net of great avarice for objects owned by others. One will find relief in the present life. Taken into confidence by kings and ministers, as well as by courts, households, noble families, monastic congregations, and priestly gatherings, one will be regarded as delightful, dear, attractive, and authoritative. The enjoyments of such a person will be constant. And without bringing harm to others, one will have no fear of rulers, water, robbers, or fire. Unanticipated, such enjoyments will arise spontaneously. Once these have arisen, one will be a field of merit, embody discipline, embark upon a good path, and develop close ties with worldly beings. Furthermore, when separating from the body one will be born in the joyful divine realms. If the merit of this is dedicated by means of the path of deliverance, one will find deliverance and, in the same way as before, become a Brahmā, Māra, Śakra, or a universal monarch who rules the four continents and possesses the seven treasures. Likewise, those who delight in discipline will attain their respective forms of awakening.
“What are the effects of giving up sexual misconduct? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this by means of knowledge derived from hearing or through the divine eye. Giving up sexual misconduct leads to good deeds and virtuous action. One will be praised and trusted in the present life. One will not feel nervous around women. Kings and ministers will take one into their confidence. One’s spouse will never be stolen by someone else, but always act with respect and in accordance with one’s own intentions. Even in hard times there will not be any mockery, disrespect, or inclination to attack one another. One’s spouse will not be blamed by anyone and she will act like a mother or sister to the whole world, being free from any anger at the world.
“As before, when separating from one’s body, one will take birth within the joyful divine realms. When later the time has come to die in that god realm, one will be reborn as another god there. If, on the other hand, one has engaged in sexual misconduct, another god will, while one is still alive in that realm, be born among the divine maidens and become visible to them. The divine maidens will then jest, smile, and have fun with that god. Later, when one’s wife sees one is dying, she will abandon one to be with that other god. Thus, caught by the shackles of envy, one will take birth as a hell being. Resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing acts of sexual misconduct is a great obstacle. Therefore, giving up sexual misconduct will allow one to follow the great path of virtue and gain the fortune to transcend suffering.
“By giving up lying, which is incompatible with all virtuous inclinations, one upholds highly virtuous inclination. What, then, are the ripened effects of this in this present life? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this by means of knowledge derived from hearing or through the divine eye. By giving up lying one will be trusted even by people who have never seen or heard of oneself. Should one be lacking in terms of wealth, all one’s wishes will be fulfilled by both the people and the king. Like the moon that shines brightly in the midst of the other planets and celestial bodies, those who speak the truth will shine brightly amid all worldly people. Among all jewels, the great jewel of the truth is supreme and sublime. Among all that liberates us from all cycles of existence, the liberator of the truth is particularly exalted. Among all that turns us away from the lower realms, the repellent of the truth is supreme. Truth is the lamp of all lamps and the guide of all guides. Among all forms of substance, it is the substance of truth that removes the sickness of others. Truth is the force among all forces, the protector among all protectors, and the most exalted among all friends.
Those who possess the wealth of truth will never experience the poverty of falling into the lower realms. Instead, they will be close to the gods. Wherever such people are born they will take birth in a fine family and have an excellent physique. Everyone will find them appealing, delightful, attractive, and trustworthy. Such people will be imperceptible to rākṣasas and piśācas, and invulnerable to their harm. Whenever such people travel they will find plentiful and excellent lodging and medical treatment. Anything they may wish for will be fulfilled. Such people will experience supreme human happiness and, when the time of their death comes, they will separate from their bodies only to be born in the joyous divine realms, where they will enjoy extremely long lives, tremendous miraculous powers, and an exceedingly exalted status. Just as before, if one dedicates this in a pure and undefiled manner, it will bring the liberation of transcending suffering.
“As one practices virtuous actions, what are the effects of giving up divisive talk, as they ripen in this life and beyond? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this by means of knowledge derived from hearing or through the divine eye. The ripened effect that is experienced in this life due to giving up divisive talk is to have steadfast friends, acquaintances, relatives, spouses, male servants, female servants, workers, and employees. One will not be led along by others, and none among one’s friends, the members of the royal court, or discordant relatives will be able to create any factions. Should one lose one’s wealth, one will not become destitute. Neither will one suffer any loss when encountering famine, isolated places, mountains, precipices, or temporary adversities. Should one criticize others, one will not be persecuted. At the royal court one will prevail, and one will not have any fear of water, weapons, or animosity. Such are the qualities associated with giving up the great stain that is divisive talk. Having died and separated from the body, one will be born in the joyful and divine higher realms. There great gatherings of affectionate goddesses of similar ilk will please one with flower garlands, colored powders, perfumes, and jewelry. Just as before, if one’s relinquishment of divisive talk is dedicated in a pure and undefiled manner, one will achieve the transcendence of suffering through the path of undefiled concentration.
While on the way to Rājagṛha to collect alms, a group of newly ordained monks are approached by some non-Buddhists, who suggest that their doctrine is identical to that of the Buddha, since everyone agrees that misdeeds of body, speech, and mind are to be given up. The monks do not know how to reply, and when they later return to the brahmin town of Nālati, where the Buddha is residing, Śāradvatīputra therefore encourages them to seek clarification from the Blessed One himself. In response to the monks’ request, the Buddha delivers a comprehensive discourse on the effects of virtuous and unvirtuous actions, explaining these matters from the perspective of an adept practitioner of his teachings, who sees and understands all this through a process of personal discovery. As the teaching progresses, the Buddha presents an epic tour of the realm of desire—from the Hell of Ultimate Torment to the Heaven Free from Strife—all the while introducing the specific human actions and attitudes that cause the experience of such worlds and outlining the ways to remedy and transcend them. In the final section of the sūtra, which is presented as an individual scripture on its own, the focus is on mindfulness of the body and the ripening of karmic actions that is experienced among humans in particular.
Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. The translation was produced by Thomas Doctor with help from Benjamin Collet-Cassart and Timothy Hinkle. Thomas also wrote the introduction. Andreas Doctor checked the translation against the Tibetan and edited the text. The 84000 editorial team subsequently reviewed the translation and made further edits. Wiesiek Mical assisted by reviewing numerous passages against the available Sanskrit sources. Robert Kritzer generously shared several unpublished articles on the text with us, and Vesna Wallace and Mitsuyo Demoto kindly gave us access to drafts of their critical Sanskrit editions of chapters 1 and 3, respectively.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
The generous sponsorship of Sun Ping, Tian Xingwen, and Sun Fanglin, which helped make the work on this translation possible, is most gratefully acknowledged.
The epic discourse of The Application of Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma (AMSD) unfolds as a single, sustained reply to a short question that is put to the Buddha Śākyamuni as the sūtra opens. A group of newly ordained monks have been challenged by the members of another religious group, who suggest that the Buddha’s teachings are indistinguishable from those of their own teacher. Not knowing how to reply, the monks request that the Buddha explain how the path of the sacred Dharma is unlike any other. As the Buddha responds to the monks, he describes the path from the perspective of an adept meditating monk, who applies the Dharma teachings correctly and so discovers the truths of the Dharma. In an account that spans the full spectrum of life in saṃsāra, from the horrifying misery and intense pain of the lower realms to the enrapturing beauty and bliss in the heavens, the Buddha explains how different kinds of physical, verbal, and mental behavior of humans lead to rebirth in such realms of existence.
The generic and unnamed monk, from whose perspective the Buddha explains the subject matter, witnesses the myriad realms of existence from the Hell of Ultimate Torment to the Heaven Free from Strife, sometimes by means of the divine eye that is accomplished through meditation, and at other times through the eye of insight that is acquired through hearing the teachings. In this way, the monk comes to directly recognize the matrix of causes and effects that keeps the wheel of cyclic existence turning, and he realizes with full clarity how, throughout all this, life and beings’ experiences are utterly impermanent and always determined by their own past actions. A very substantial part of the sūtra describes the ravishing sceneries and amazing events that take place in the heavens. In the midst of these breathtaking descriptions, the sūtra frequently presents pithy teachings of the Dharma, typically given in verses that may be spoken by gods, such as Śakra, or by divine birds, such as the king of swans or the peacock king.
The account of the heavens and the actions that lead to rebirth there comes to an abrupt end in the midst of the descriptions of the Heaven Free from Strife. Instead follows, for the remainder of the scripture, a teaching on mindfulness of the body. This latter teaching, which functions mostly as an independent part of the sūtra, presents mindfulness of the body within the framework of the “internal” human body and the “external” body of the outer world. This latter section includes an elaborate description of the human realm according to Buddhist cosmology. Given the sūtra’s sudden stop in the middle of the presentation of the Heaven Free from Strife, it seems quite likely that an earlier version of the sūtra might have been significantly longer than the present version and that only a partial version was available to the Tibetan translators. If so, the missing material must, however, have been lost at a very early point in the text’s history, since the Chinese translation, which was produced earlier, during the early sixth century, features the same disjointed topical transition. In spite of this awkward end to the sūtra’s description of the heavenly realms, the discourse of the AMSD as it remains today is a vast treasury of Dharma, a rich presentation of the realms of saṃsāra, and a splendid piece of world literature that stands out as one of the greatest literary works of classical India.
With its 2158 Tibetan pages, the AMSD is the largest scripture within the general sūtra section of the Degé Kangyur, where the text is placed as the first scripture within the collection of Hīnayāna scriptures. This placement among the Hīnayāna sūtras has been a topic of some debate among Tibetans, since one finds frequent occurrences of the term “Mahāyāna” within the sūtra’s later sections. Notably, however, the term is only found in the Tibetan translation of the sūtra, not in the Chinese translation. Moreover, the Tibetan translator of the sūtra, Patshap Tsultrim Gyaltsen (eleventh–twelfth c.), himself classified the text as a Mahāyāna scripture in his colophon to the sūtra. Still, the editor of the Degé Kangyur, Situ Paṇchen Chökyi Jungné (1700–1774) classified the sūtra as belonging to the Hīnayāna, basing himself on the earlier classification of Butön Rinchen Drup (1290–1364), the famous compiler of the Kangyur. Butön in turn seems to have relied on the Denkarma inventory (compiled in 812), which likewise classifies the sūtra as a Hīnayāna scripture.
According to its lengthy and very informative colophon, the Tibetan translation of the sūtra that is preserved in the Degé Kangyur was produced during the reign of the Indian king Rāmapāla (ca. 1077–1120). In his colophon, the Tibetan translator Tsultrim Gyaltsen mentions that the translation is based on several earlier incomplete draft translations. At least some of these had been produced already, during the earlier Tibetan translation efforts of the eighth and ninth centuries, as attested by the text’s inclusion in the Denkarma inventory. Tsultrim Gyaltsen further mentions that he worked on the translation together with a large team of Indian paṇḍitas, among whom he makes specific mention of Śāntākaragupta, Abhayākaragupta, Śakyarakṣita, Vīryākaraśānti, Subhūticandra, and Aḍitacandra. He also says that he was further assisted by two other Tibetan scholars, Shang Buchikpa and Sherap Ö. In spite of his prominent role in producing this translation of the AMSD, Patshap Tsultrim Gyaltsen does not appear to have translated any other texts contained in the Kangyur. We do, however, find a Tsultrim Gyaltsen, who may very likely be the same person, listed as the translator of a number of tantric practice manuals contained in the Tengyur, at times working with the paṇḍita named Abhayākaragupta (who we just saw was involved in the translation of the AMSD). Apart from such brief listings of his name, however, we sadly have no other information available about this important figure in the history of Tibetan Buddhism.
The single extant Sanskrit manuscript of the AMSD is supposedly kept today at the Norbulingka in Lhasa, although no official information is available about this and physical access to the manuscript appears to be highly restricted. Photographs of the manuscript have recently been shared among a small group of scholars in the West, but these photos are also not freely accessible at present. According to Daniel Stuart, the date of composition of the sūtra in India can be established to be somewhere between 150 and 400
A critical edition and English translation of the Sanskrit text pertaining to the first part of chapter 2 (according to the Tibetan chapter structure) has been published by Stuart. Critical editions of chapter 1 and the section on the hell realms in the latter part of chapter 2 are currently being prepared by Vesna Wallace and Mitsuyo Demoto, respectively. As we prepared this English translation we consulted Stuart’s critical Sanskrit edition and English translation of that section of the text, which proved to be very beneficial for our translation. Wallace and Demoto also both kindly shared their draft Sanskrit editions with us, which likewise was very helpful for our work. For a detailed discussion of the sūtra’s textual history and the Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan manuscripts, we refer the interested reader to Stuart’s doctoral thesis on the AMSD (2012) and his later published version of his thesis (2015a).
Short references to the AMSD, its teaching on impermanence, and its calls to renunciation are quite frequent in the Tibetan scholarly tradition. Most notably, Karmapa III, Rangjung Dorjé (1284–1339), produced a large compendium to the sūtra. Modern scholarship on the AMSD was first undertaken by Lin and Demiéville (1949) but has recently been greatly advanced through the publications of Stuart (2012, 2015a, 2015b, 2017a). Stuart’s recent work provides a wealth of information regarding the available textual witnesses and analysis of some of the heterogeneous doctrinal developments that find expression in the AMSD. In addition to her forthcoming critical Sanskrit edition of chapter 3, Demoto (2009) has also published a study of the names of the various hell realms that occur in this chapter. Robert Kritzer is currently preparing a Tibetan critical edition and English translation of the final (autonomous) section of the AMSD, which concerns mindfulness of the body (chapter 7 according to the Chinese chapter division). Kritzer also kindly shared his unpublished paper (forthcoming) on the AMSD’s complex presentation of “worms” that are described in the sūtra as inhabiting the human body. Recently, in his book on sexuality in Indian Buddhism, José Cabezón has also discussed the lengthy presentation of the hells that we find in the AMSD, where several hells are described as the ripened results of various forms of sexual misconduct.
In producing this English translation, we have based our work on the Degé xylograph while consulting the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma), as well as the Stok Palace manuscript. It goes without saying that we do not see our translation as definitive, or final, in any way. As the publications of Stuart, Kritzer, and Demoto have clearly demonstrated, there is a dizzying amount of philological detail to consider in the Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan witnesses of the AMSD. As our aim has been to produce a complete English translation of the more than 2100 pages contained in the Tibetan text, we have unfortunately not been able to study these textual details of the sūtra to the degree that learned scholars would otherwise expect. We therefore sincerely apologize for any errors and shortcomings this English translation may contain. We nevertheless hope that, in spite of its imperfections, this publication may prove useful for scholars, as well as members of the general public, who wish to explore and study this amazing discourse. As further studies on this sūtra are published in the future, the present translation surely also stands to benefit. With its poetic beauty, philosophical profundity, and gripping presentation of the world as perceived by Buddhists in early medieval India, the AMSD certainly deserves the attention of the contemporary world.
III. Chapter 3
(iii) The Heaven Free from Strife
i. The Gods in Moving in Gatherings
q. The Gods in Living by Rājanina
[V68] [B1] Homage to all the buddhas, bodhisattvas, solitary buddhas, and noble hearers!
Thus did I hear at one time. While the Blessed One was residing in the brahmin quarter of the village of Nālati near Rājagṛha, venerable Śāradvatīputra one morning went to Rājagṛha together with a great gathering of monks to collect alms. As they were out receiving alms, a large group of the monks came across some wandering non-Buddhist practitioners who were on the way to the same destination, and together they engaged in a Dharma discussion to everyone’s delight and appreciation.
During their discussions some of the non-Buddhists asked, “Ah, you Śākya followers, does not your mendicant Gautama teach that misdeeds of the body are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and that one should refrain from rejoicing in them even when they are done by another? We also consider misdeeds of the body to be unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and we do not rejoice in them even when done by others. Does not your mendicant Gautama teach that misdeeds of speech are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and that one should refrain from rejoicing in them even when done by another? We also consider misdeeds of speech to be unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and we do not rejoice in them even when done by others. Does not your mendicant Gautama teach that misdeeds of the mind are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and that one should refrain from rejoicing in them even when done by another? We also consider misdeeds of the mind to be unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and we do not rejoice in them even when done by others. What difference is there [F.82.b] between your mendicant Gautama’s Dharma-Vinaya and our own? What are the ideas? What are the distinctive points? What makes the Dharma-Vinaya of your mendicant Gautama superior to ours? The mendicant Gautama claims that he is omniscient.”
When faced with these questions by the wandering non-Buddhist practitioners, the group of newly ordained monks neither approved nor responded because the venerable Śāradvatīputra was absent. Once they had completed their alms round, the large group of monks returned to the town of Nālati where they had their meal and then took their places amid the gathering of monks.
Later, venerable Śāradvatīputra also returned to the town of Nālati, having received his alms. When he arrived, the great gathering of monks went to see him and related to him what had transpired. Venerable Śāradvatīputra said, “If I had been traveling with you, venerable ones, and had met those wandering non-Buddhist practitioners along the Rājagṛha highway, at a crossing, or at a fork in the road, I would have defeated them in accordance with the Dharma. But unfortunately, I did not witness what transpired in your discussion with those wandering non-Buddhist practitioners.
“Venerable ones, the eyes of the Blessed One perceive everything directly. He understands actions, their effects, and their ripening. At present he is residing not far from here. Subduing all those whose views are extreme, he is teaching the Dharma of actions and their ripening results to hearers and laypeople, gods and humans. You must bring what happened before him. He will teach you everything about actions and their ripening. He will teach you that which is not seen by any god, māra, Brahmā, mendicant, brahmin, or any other being. What we fail to see the Blessed One sees directly. With his knowledge of actions and their ripening results, he will teach you.”
The large group of monks then set off to see the Blessed One and came upon him during his afternoon rest. He was seated like Mount Sumeru, shining brightly within a sphere of light. The Blessed One was resplendent like the sun at noon, peaceful and soothing like the moon at night. He was clear like a lake, deep like the sea, unshakable like Mount Sumeru, and dauntless like a lion. Like a parent, he was the refuge for all. With his mind permeated by great compassion, he was the universal friend of all beings. He was an abode of love, compassion, joy, and equanimity. With his body adorned by the thirty-seven great factors of awakening, its radiance delighted the eyes of all who beheld him. Outshining the light of the sun and the moon, the son of the Śākya king was endowed with universal vision, and his eyes were free of the three stains. He had taught the two truths, comprehended the twofold suffering, accomplished and actualized the two cultivations, realized the result of the path, and gained the knowledge of the reality of cessation. Endowed with eyes that perceive the three realms directly, he revealed the three realms to others. He had fathomed the real nature of the eighteen elements. He knew the essence of the inspired mind. He was endowed with the eighteen floods of unique qualities, liberated from the bonds of existence, in possession of the ten powers, fearless with the four types of fearlessness, endowed with great compassion, and constantly in possession of the threefold application of mindfulness.
The many monks draped their Dharma robes over their shoulders, knelt on their right knees, and bowed their heads to the Blessed One’s feet. Calmly and with heads bowed, they then stood to one side. A monk who had been appointed by the large gathering now stepped forth and approached the Blessed One. When he was very close to the Blessed One, he bowed his head to his feet. He then respectfully conveyed to the Blessed One how, in the morning, the monks had dressed in their Dharma robes, picked up their alms bowls, and gone to Rājagṛha to receive alms. He recounted how they had met the wandering non-Buddhist practitioners, and how the latter had begun to discuss physical, verbal, and mental misdeeds, up to the questions they had asked.
When the monk had finished his account, the Blessed One spoke the following words to the monks, as well as to the brahmins of Nālati, and the others: “Monks, I shall explain for you a teaching of the Dharma that is known as Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma. Auspicious in the beginning, the middle, and the end, this teaching is of profound meaning and conveyed in excellent words. Unique, complete, and pure, it explains the perfect training and pure conduct. Listen keenly and keep in mind what I say. I shall explain this for you.”
“Blessed One,” replied the monks, “we shall do just as you instruct.”
As the monks listened, the Blessed One now spoke: “Monks, you may wonder what is meant by the Dharma teaching known as Mindfulness of the Sacred Dharma. Well, it is to remain constantly mindful of seeing Dharma as Dharma and non-Dharma as non-Dharma, while not having any doubts. It is to delight in listening to the Dharma, and to venerate one’s elders. This yields knowledge of the effects of the karmic actions of body, speech, and mind, and of the ripening of those actions in terms of death and rebirth. One’s view thereby becomes unmistaken and impervious to being swayed by others.
“Monks, there are three misdeeds of the body: killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. What, then, is killing? To take a life is to recognize another sentient being as a sentient being and knowingly slay it. Such an act may be of a great, intermediate, or minor kind. Great killing is the murder of a worthy one or the like. Such acts lead to the Hell of Ultimate Torment. Intermediate killing occurs when one murders someone on the path. Minor killing is to kill an animal or someone of degenerate moral conduct.
“An act of killing can also be categorized with respect to the past, future, or present, or in terms of whether that act is carried out due to desire, anger, or delusion. Of these latter, killing out of desire occurs in hunting deer and other game. Killing out of hatred occurs in killing a snake, a mongoose, or the like. Killing due to delusion occurs in sacrificial killings and the like. Killing can likewise be categorized in terms of acts done by oneself, acts ordered by others, and acts done both by oneself and on the order of others.
“In five cases killing will not incur any stain of evil: unwittingly killing insects, ants, and so forth that happen to be in one’s a path; unintentionally striking and killing someone with a weapon; dispensing the wrong type of medicine to a sick person, thereby accidently causing the person’s death while trying to help; as a mother, causing the death of one’s child by disciplinary beating; and unintentionally causing living beings to die due to their falling into fire. When killing occurs under these five circumstances there will not be any stain.
“Further, killing may take place, again in three ways, by contracting others to do it, by performing the deed oneself, or by both of these methods.
“What is understood by a complete act of stealing? A spiritual practitioner, who observes and adheres to the Dharma, may understand this through having received teachings or having seen it to be the case by means of the divine eye. A complete act of stealing is to rob something that belongs to another with the intention of making it one’s own.
“Which acts of this kind will have a minor effect? If one takes what was not given due to compliance with a royal decree; or if one takes what was not given for the sake of one’s guru, one’s sick parents, a solitary buddha, a worthy one, a non-returner, a stream enterer, or the like; or if one does so for the sake of the sick or the hungry. In such cases there will be a minor ripening of the act. Such cases of taking what was not given, when performed by someone who has not taken vows to take what was not given, also involve only a minor ripening. Minor effects will also arise when one takes what was not given, but then mentally confesses, feels remorse, and abstains in the future, and when one prevents others from taking what was not given, confers vows upon them, establishes them upon the path, and establishes them in the practice of abstaining from taking what was not given. Similarly, only minor effects occur when the preparations, act, or conclusion is incomplete.
“What are the preparations for stealing? They involve deceiving the victim, giving secret instructions, engaging in fraud, or some other form of inappropriate activity. What is the act itself? It is to take the possessions of another without them being given. What is the act’s conclusion? This consists in rejoicing in, becoming habituated to, and increasing the act; rejoicing in the act while keeping it hidden; and making other disciplined individuals engage in such an act. When a misdeed of stealing lacks any of these three aspects, which include preparations and conclusion, its effect will be minor and experienced in indeterminate ways.
“What is sexual misconduct? This is understood by a spiritual practitioner who observes phenomena. Such a person will see that sexual misconduct occurs when one penetrates one’s own wife, or another man’s wife, through an opening other than the vagina, or when one rejoices in others performing such an act, or when one makes others engage in it even while refraining from doing so oneself.
“In which cases will the effects of sexual misconduct be minor? When the act is regretted and confessed, when one does not rejoice in it, when one discourages others from engaging in sexual misconduct and establishes them on the path, and when the preparation or conclusion is incomplete. When such factors of intention and discipline are present the effects of an act of sexual misconduct will be minor and their experience indeterminate. When the three misdeeds of the body are of this kind their effects are lesser and weak.
“Only those who hear these points from my hearers or from myself will understand the whole matter of karmic actions and their ripening effects. Thus, they will not be swayed by the accounts of others, but become independent. These points are not realized by wandering non-Buddhist practitioners. Neither are they realized by the world with its gods; nor by the māras; nor by Brahmā, mendicants, and brahmins; nor by gods, humans, and asuras.
“What are the misdeeds of speech? Spiritual practitioners who understand phenomena, as well as karmic actions and their maturation, will know that there are four misdeeds of speech: lying, divisive talk, harsh words, and chatter.
“What is lying? Lying is to deceive oneself and others. Thus, when one expresses false complaints before a king or minister and so unjustly brings harm or ruin upon others, that constitutes a complete verbal misdeed of lying. Such acts lead sentient beings to experience life in hell.
“What is the misdeed of speech known as divisive talk? If, with the intention to sow discord, one speaks to a group that is otherwise in agreement on a certain subject, that is a verbal misdeed of divisive talk. How can the effects of divisive talk be lessened? By confession, thinking, ‘In my delusion I have done wrong!’; by hindering those who delight in sowing discord and by establishing them on the path; or by refraining from the act’s preparations or conclusion.
“What are the preparations for such an act? They consist in speaking to others out of a delight in sowing discord and the affliction of haughtiness. What is the course of action in terms of divisive talk? It is to repeatedly rejoice and delight in disharmony based on an aggressive mind. When is the conclusion of such an act complete? It is complete when one rejoices in a performed act of divisive talk; when one anticipates further, repeated engagements in such acts with excitement and pleasure; and when one does not wish to rectify this inclination. This mental state is one of aggression. When examined by others, one will be deemed untrustworthy and scorned. Such an act exposes one as being shameless and without any sense of embarrassment or self-criticism. This is the verbal misdeed of divisive talk.
“What is the misdeed of harsh words? Spiritual practitioners who see phenomena, karmic actions, and their origin will understand this by means of knowledge derived from hearing. In this regard, harsh words bring harm to oneself and impact others by creating the occasion for them to hear unpleasant words. Such acts ripen in various ways, depending on whether they were concealed or confessed, or whether they were done in a spirit of jest or malice. The severe forms of harsh words cause the experience of life in hell, yet through confession the resultant experience can become indeterminate. This is the third verbal misdeed. The preparations, conclusion, and full possession are as described above.
“What is the fourth verbal misdeed? Spiritual practitioners who comprehend numerous forms of karmic action, phenomena, and ripening recognize chatter to be pointless and unrelated babble. The resultant experiences are indeterminate, and the act involves less evil. Such is the fourth verbal misdeed.
“What are mental misdeeds, and how many of them are there? Spiritual practitioners who consider karmic action, phenomena, and ripening know by means of knowledge derived from hearing that there are three mental misdeeds. They understand that covetousness occurs when one sees the possessions of others, and that gives rise to thinking, craving, and the idea that ‘those things should be mine.’ Such covetousness is the first among the mental misdeeds.
“There is also ill will, which is to give rise to a hostile and aggressive state of mind when seeing others’ agreeable circumstances. That is the second mental misdeed.
“The third mental misdeed is wrong view, a mistaken perception of things. This has two aspects: denying what is, and misunderstanding. Denying what is means to deny the relevance of such things as generosity, fire offerings, and sacrificial worship, or that good and bad deeds will ripen into karmic consequences. Misunderstanding is the belief that happiness and suffering are bestowed by gods and not the result of karmic action. That is the second form of wrong view.
“If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases these ten misdeeds that pertain to body, speech, and mind, their consequences may become certain as they ripen in the present life. The karmic effects may also be experienced in accordance with the causal actions following one’s death and rebirth into another realm, or they may be experienced in various ways following rebirth in this realm. How is that? A spiritual practitioner who considers karmic action, phenomena, and ripening will understand this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye.
“Killing is the first of the misdeeds of the body. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases the amount of killing, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will have a short life. If, for example, one is a hunter who has killed due to attachment, one will suffer a downfall because of that. Having become a deer, pig, partridge, chicken, pheasant, fish, or the like, one will be killed by a trap or a hook. Such are the causal relationships associated with the acts of killing in cyclic existence. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one’s life will be short. One will not be born in a land of wise people and instead one’s birthplace will be plagued by many armed conflicts. There, one will soon be killed. Here is a verse on lesser, intermediate, and severe killing:
“Such is the ripening of the act of killing in terms of the present life.
“Resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing acts of stealing yields three forms of ripening: the experience of life in hell, present life consequences, and concordant effects in future lives. What are these like? Spiritual practitioners who consider karmic action, phenomena, and ripening perceive this based on the knowledge derived from hearing. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases acts of stealing, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will be destitute. Whatever enjoyable things one might have will be taken by punitive legislation, water, fire, weapons, robbers, or thieves. Thus, whatever one may have gathered will be wasted and what is obtained will not yield any enjoyment. These are the three effects of stealing.
“What are the three effects of resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing acts of sexual misconduct? Spiritual practitioners who observe karmic action, phenomena, and ripening will perceive the following either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases acts of sexual misconduct, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. If one is born as a human, the causally concordant effect will be such that one’s spouse is disrespectful, one becomes a hermaphrodite, or one is held in contempt by the world.
“Such are the threefold effects of the ripening of the three physical misdeeds. However, the wandering non-Buddhist practitioners do not accept any of this, from the physical misdeeds up to and including their ripening. Why is that? Because those who develop and cultivate ignorance do not perceive my teaching on karmic action, phenomena, and ripening. However, my hearers and my spiritual practitioners do see this.
“Furthermore, what is meant by a spoken or verbal misdeed? What forms does it assume? Spiritual practitioners who abide by the observation of phenomena perceive four verbal misdeeds by means of knowledge derived from hearing: lying, divisive talk, harsh words, and chatter. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases acts of lying one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, others will disregard what one has to say. Nobody will listen, whether in royal courts, among householders, amid the nobility, or even in the company of one’s own children and spouse. One’s breath will carry a foul odor, and one’s teeth, mouth, complexion, and skin will be unpleasant to behold. Mistreated by all worldly individuals, one will live in perpetual fear. Family, friends, and loved ones will be unreliable. All projects one undertakes will come to naught, and one will instead be driven to pursue all sorts of meaningless activities. Such are the unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant karmic effects of the act of lying.
“What are the effects of resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing the second verbal misdeed? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases divisive talk one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among human beings, sharing in their good fortune, one may be dumb, deaf, or suffer from bad breath. Nobody will trust one’s words and one will become the laughingstock of all. One’s facial complexion will be unattractive. One will be unable to feel at ease at any single location. One’s mind will be restless yet rigid. Such is the misdeed of divisive talk.
“What are the effects of resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing harsh words? These are understood either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases harsh words, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will not be consoled by anyone. Constantly the target of everyone’s abuse, one will not be offered relief by anyone. Not a single word of appreciation will come from one’s own children or spouse. Like a deer, one will have to live in fear of all humans. Without access to spiritual teachers, one will fall in with bad company. These three are the effects of harsh words.
“What is it like to resort to, become habituated to, and increase the misdeed of chatter? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena will perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. When resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing chatter, one will end up in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will not be appreciated by others but will be considered unimportant. Whether at the royal palace or in the homes of family and friends, one will be looked at as one gone mad. Such is the misdeed of chatter.
“What is it like to resort to, become habituated to, and increase the three mental misdeeds? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena will understand this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. If one resorts to, becomes habituated to, and increases covetousness, one will take birth in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, all that one accumulates will be seized by the authorities, or destroyed by water or fire. Thus, one will live in constant poverty.
“What is it like to resort to, become habituated to, and increase the mental misdeed of ill will? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena will perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. When resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing ill will, one will end up in the realms of hell beings, animals, or starving spirits. Even if one is born among humans, sharing in their good fortune, one will be born in rocky mountains, among barbarians who are constantly afflicted by armed conflict, and one will live in permanent fear. Continuously one will suffer from falling down into a precipices. One’s mind will never be at ease and all sorts of harm will continuously befall one.
“What is it like to resort to, become habituated to, and increase the mental misdeed of wrong view? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena will perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. Resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing wrong views will lead to the experience of the whole gamut of suffering that is associated with life in hells such as that of Ultimate Torment. Moreover, one will go from one animal life to the next billions of times, and the same will occur within the realm of starving spirits. In the rare event that one is born among humans and shares the fortune of humans, one will nevertheless encounter thousands of variations of the flaws that are taught with respect to these unvirtuous actions.
“Moreover, when one contemplates the very subtle aspects of the ten unvirtuous actions in other ways, one will understand how they lead sentient beings to roam through the realms of hell beings, starving spirits, and animals. Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye.
“In this regard, you may wonder how one may resort to, become habituated to, and increase acts of killing.
“Regarding the first of these, one may associate with negative companions, students, or friends who kill. One may enjoy their company, fool around with them, work with them, and stay with them. One may find such people trustworthy and in possession of good qualities, and thus adopt their behavior. Unvirtuous teachers and students who have the habit of killing people will tell all sorts of stories to justify killing. These are not the path and only lead others to indulge in killing. In this manner, they may tell stories about sacrificial offerings, stories about wild game, or wicked stories based on their gustatory cravings. Similarly, they may tell stories about retaliation against hostile adversaries or relations, or stories based on their craving for these people’s belongings. Similarly, taking great in delight in affliction, they will tell stories based on their craving for material things or about deeds for acquiring fame. In these ways, they lead others on. If one trusts and adheres to such people, one may also end up resorting to killing. Resorting to killing results in entering the realms of hell beings, starving spirits, and animals. Such effects are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant, and are condemned by all wise people. Even if one is born human, one’s life will be short. Thus, the taking of life stemming from a wicked teacher makes one become totally habituated to killing.
“What does it mean to become habituated to unwholesome people? Based on the taking of life that is influenced by unwholesome people as just described, one rejoices in, appreciates, contemplates, and condones acts of killing. Setting one’s mind on killing, one succeeds in slaying others by numerous means. Without counting it as a fault and condemning it, one delights in killing and does not refrain from it. In this way, killing becomes second nature. Those who otherwise have the habit of not killing will be drawn into the practice of killing. One will also engage in the kinds of conversation, and so on, alluded to previously. This is what it is like to grow habituated to killing.
“What does it mean to increase killing? Once habituated to killing in the way just described, one may associate with evil companions and thereby greatly expand one’s murderous activities. Thus, one may craft poisonous arrows, gather dogs and raptors, and accept the protection of barbarous people. Fond of warfare, one may wear chain mail, weapons, swords, lances, axes, disks, helmets, and so on—thus adopting all possible instruments for killing others. Such is the person who increases killing.
“Through such causes, bases, and conditions one will be born in the realms of hell beings, animals, and starving spirits, and so be tormented by unbearable harm. Based on whether one’s killing was minor, intermediate, or severe, there will be a corresponding experience of minor, intermediate, or severe ripening.
“Whenever an act has been carried out and accumulated it will also ripen. Therefore, acts that were done by oneself will also be experienced by oneself. Hence, if one has become disenchanted with cyclic existence one should give up evil acts and pursue what is virtuous. These are the explanations of resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing the taking of life.
“How does one resort to, become habituated to, and increase acts of stealing? How does resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing such acts lead to the experience of life in hell?
“People whose discipline has degenerated will naturally be disposed to thievery. When they associate with negative companions or students they will engage in minor, intermediate, or great acts of stealing. Minor acts of stealing occur as described earlier, when one takes others’ possessions out of fear of otherwise being punished by the authorities. Intermediate acts occur when one steals smaller things as long as one does not steal from a field of excellence. Even if a minor thing is taken from the Buddha, Dharma, or Saṅgha, the result will be great. However, if one has improperly taken from the Buddha, Dharma, or Saṅgha but later makes proportionate offerings to them, the negative act can be purified, especially in the case of the Buddha and the Dharma. If one steals from the saṅgha, it cannot be purified without experiencing some painful effects because the saṅgha is a field with a particularly strong karmic charge. If one steals a means of sustenance from the congregation one will fall into the great hells. If one steals something else from the congregation, one will instead be born in one of the hells that surround that of Ultimate Torment, such as Great Darkness.
“If one takes up, resorts to, rejoices in, becomes habituated to, and increases stealing, even minor forms of stealing will lead to birth among hell beings, animals, and starving spirits. If one does not develop attachment to and rejoice in the act, and instead regrets it, the ripening will become indeterminate.
“Resorting to stealing occurs when someone who is inclined to take what was not given engages in various ways in acts of thievery.
“What is meant by becoming habituated to stealing? Having obtained something that was stolen, one may rejoice and delight in the robbers and thieves, and happily consume or employ what was stolen. Considering such conduct to be a good quality, one may encourage and help others to steal. This is becoming habituated to stealing.
“How is stealing increased? This occurs when one steals in order to enjoy linens, food, drink, clothing, jewelry, beverages, prostitutes, and ornaments. Delighted, one may think, ‘Among all pleasures, those which comes from stealing are the best!’ With such thoughts one enjoys linens, food, drink, clothing, jewelry, beverages, prostitutes, and ornaments. Thinking, ‘I must continue stealing because it brings me so much pleasure,’ one then proceeds as described above. This is what it means to increase the act of stealing and as a result of that it is certain that sentient beings will experience life in a hell.
“What does it mean to resort to, become habituated to, and increase acts of sexual misconduct? Overcome by an inappropriate mentality, one may become a type of being with a propensity for desire such as a swallow, duck, pheasant, parrot, peafowl, partridge, fish, or smoky creatures. When such beings die and transfer out of the family of asuras they may be born among humans and associate with bad companions who are full of desire. With them they may then have inappropriate sexual relationships. Being mistaken in these two ways, they are filled with attachment, and they act in inappropriate ways to sate their insatiable desires. This makes it impossible for the gandharvas, otherwise destined to be born there, to take birth, because it desecrates the birthplace. Such are the reasons why sexual misconduct, which is based on improper desire, is a misdeed.
“Resorting to sexual misconduct occurs when a person with an inordinate desire for carnal contact indulges in such acts and continuously repeats them, finding intense gratification in physical sensations. What does it mean to become habituated to sexual misconduct? This refers to repeatedly engaging in sexual misconduct and thinking about it, becoming so infatuated with it that one gives up other pleasures only to focus on sexual misconduct and the object of one’s desire. What is meant by increasing sexual misconduct? Infantile, ordinary beings consumed by inappropriate mental activity feel that sexual misconduct is the best thing possible and they think that it is a mistake to classify such behavior as a form of misconduct. Instead they regard sexual misconduct as a supreme quality and therefore encourage many others to engage in it. That is what it means to increase sexual misconduct. These three physical misdeeds are unvirtuous actions in which infantile, ordinary beings engage.
“What about the four verbal misdeeds: lying, divisive talk, harsh words, and chatter?
“Lying is to deceive oneself and others, for by speaking lies one does indeed deceive both oneself and others. There are five causes for lying: desire, anger, fear, personal gain, and indoctrination into the prescribed practices of a misguided religion. How does one lie? Whether at the royal court, in an assembly of householders, or among one’s relatives, one may lie to both those who are dear to oneself and those who are not. One may lie to those who are dear to oneself out of desire and to those who are not dear to oneself out of anger. One may also lie for the sake of personal gain and for the sake of wealth.
“Moreover, indoctrination into the prescribed practices of a misguided religion is also a way of lying. For example, brahmins may declare that lying will not carry any blemish as long as it is done to obtain desirable qualities, or to safeguard one’s wealth, protect one’s life, or obtain a bride. Such declarations are a form of lying by means of indoctrination into the discipline of a misguided religion, and through such indoctrination into ignorant and wrong views one will come to live in an unbearable hell. Since lying plants the seeds of the hell realms it is best to entirely avoid any form of lying, even at the expense of one’s own life or that of others.
“One may also tell lies out of fear, as when someone thinks, ‘Unless I lie now, I may expose my life to serious danger for no reason.’ In such cases one lies motivated by fear.
“Thus, these five factors cause infantile beings to lie. All of them are based on delusion.
“At this point, there are some verses:
“Therefore, regardless of the causes and conditions, one should refrain from lying and should not rejoice in lies told by others, either.
“Nor should one seek out, take part in, or participate in conversations with liars, lest others will think that one is a liar oneself. Thus, if one befriends people who are fond of tainted activities, others will come to think of oneself as tainted as well. That is to say, one ought not keep negative company. Negative company leads to bondage in cyclic existence and birth in the realms of hell beings, starving spirits, and animals. Virtuous company, on the other hand, leads to supreme liberation. This is a brief explanation of lying.
“What is divisive talk and what forms does it assume? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. Divisive talk occurs when words are spoken to sow discord among those who otherwise enjoyed harmonious relationships. There are two forms of divisive talk: direct and indirect. That is to say, one might instruct someone to cause a rift among two people so that they become enemies or adversaries, or one might also seek to do so personally.
“What then are harsh words, and what forms do they assume? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. Harsh words are harmful to oneself and others. They are the concordant cause of anger, and they are unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant to listen to. They involve desire, anger, and delusion, and they are engaged in by all infantile, ordinary individuals. They take numerous forms and involve numerous observations, causes, mental states, and types of ripening, as well as numerous ways of destroying the joyful destinations. They make everyone unhappy and they cause and support anger in the world. They provoke destruction, breed distrust and unkindness, and emerge from a poisonous tongue. Thus, the stains of harsh words are to be avoided by all who practice pure conduct.
“At this point, there are some verses:
“Moreover, spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena understand chatter, the fourth verbal misdeed. What forms does chatter assume? Chatter is unrelated babble, the expression of random words based on shallow thinking. Some forms of chatter are careless, whereas others are not. By engaging in chatter, one will be considered untrustworthy in this life, and the people of the world will despise one’s course of activities. Chatter is pointless prattle, and thus one ought to refrain from either directly or indirectly engaging in, or rejoicing in, this fourth verbal stain. And neither should one keep company with those who engage in chatter.
“Covetousness, ill will, and wrong view belong to the path of unvirtuous mental acts.
“Among these, covetousness is the state of being mentally and verbally obsessed with the substances and features of wealth procured by others, thinking, ‘This should be mine!’ Covetousness is that form of inappropriate mental engagement that is an impulsive reaction to, and craving for, the fine circumstances of others. Covetousness is an unvirtuous action, and its ripening is unattractive, ugly, and unpleasant. Covetousness fools restless and untrained, childish beings by creating a compulsive obsession with the fine circumstances of others. Thus, one seeks to obtain their fine circumstances, repeatedly and all-encompassingly, while wishing for and craving them to the extent that the very perception of such circumstances becomes painful. This is covetousness, a great stain among mental actions.
“How does the mental state of ill will constitute a negative course of action? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by means of the divine eye. They see how the illusory mental flaw of ill will may arise when observing others, regardless of whether they are excellent or not. Thus, one might act as one pleases with regard to that illusion, and so sustain an extremely severe mental flaw. Such ill will leads to the experience of life in hell. It is like hail to the crops of virtuous qualities and is antithetical to the eye of true insight. This fire within the heart of darkness burns away spiritual discipline. It is a cause of ugliness and cuts through the supports for the Dharma. It is the enemy of both this world and the worlds to come. It destroys one-pointedness, combats love, and demolishes the noble one’s four truths of suffering, origin, path, and cessation. Ill will is the supreme harbinger of life in hell. Ill will is therefore abandoned by all holy beings, noble hearers, and people in pursuit of learning.
“What is the function of wrong view, this darkness that grows in the hearts of beings in the form of negative beliefs that run counter to the sacred Dharma? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena perceive this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by seeing with the divine eye. Wrong view has been present and has arisen since time without beginning. It is the cause of becoming a hell being, a starving spirit, or an animal. It is pitch-black darkness. It is a fondness for negative beliefs. It is antithetical to the genuine path. It is like a weapon, fire, poison, and an abyss. It destroys all beings. It is a view that is wrong and mistaken.
“There are two kinds of wrong view: those that accept the existence of conditions and those that deny karmic actions and results. To accept conditions is to claim that all happiness and suffering is the result of actions carried out by oneself. To deny karmic actions and results is to deny the relevance of generosity, and so forth. Thus, as the basis of all ten unvirtuous actions, wrong view functions as the fundamental destroyer of all meaningful objectives. [B2]
“Having turned away from the path of these ten unvirtuous actions, how does one instead engage in defiled or undefiled acts? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this either through knowledge derived from hearing or by means of the divine eye. Unvirtuous actions lead to bondage in cyclic existence and the exhaustion of Dharma. Virtue, on the other hand, is what causes liberation. Giving up killing, one gives freedom from fear to all the beings in cyclic existence. One will be praised in the present life, have a beautiful countenance, enjoy bright faculties, and carry out acts that engender longevity. Those who day and night protect even harmful creatures such as rākṣasas, piśācas, or kumbhāṇḍas of different kinds will thereafter be protected by the gods, and when they separate from their bodies, they will be born in the joyful divine realms. If you want to experience the effect of such ripening, then know that such experience is proportionate to your diligence.
“If one wishes to experience the minor, intermediate, or great paths of awakening, then this is how they follow. Dedication toward the awakening of a hearer will turn one into a worthy one and one will go completely beyond suffering. Dedication toward intermediate awakening will make one a solitary buddha. If one’s dedication is toward unsurpassable and perfect awakening, one will become a perfect buddha. Endowed with knowledge and its support, one will become a well-gone one, a knower of the world, a steersman who tames beings, an unexcelled one, a teacher of gods and humans, a blessed buddha.
“Life is the root of all qualities. Hence, protecting life is a gift that grants all forms of happiness. Among all forms of generosity, the mental state of wishing to give life is supreme. Among all forms of discipline, the discipline of giving life is the supreme way to gain rebirth in the higher realms. If the practice of such discipline is dedicated toward the enjoyment of objects that serve as causes of affliction and craving, then one will become Brahmā, Māra, or Śakra. If it is dedicated to becoming a great human being, then one will become a universal monarch, possessing the seven treasures and ruling the four continents. If it is dedicated to becoming a great asura, one will rule the realm of the asuras. If it is dedicated to becoming a great yakṣa one will rule the realm of the yakṣas. This great compassion is the seed of the sacred Dharma. It is a protection against cyclic existence and a lamp for those who are lost in the darkness of cyclic existence. Such is the practice of refraining from killing. By giving up killing one cultivates love and becomes a compassionate being. Deciding to refrain from killing brings purity and joy. When one is unable to actually save others, one should remain impartial. This will make one’s mind rest in the four abodes of Brahmā.
“In essence, the roots of virtue that ensue from having given up killing are inconceivable because they accomplish whatever aim one may dedicate them to in whatever applicable way. As an analogy, when an expert goldsmith works with fine gold, he can turn it into anything he wants: ornaments, vases, human figures, or buddha figures. Similarly, someone who guards against killing and maintains that practice unerringly without violating it may accomplish whatever aim he or she is dedicated to in whatever applicable way. Thus, those who give up killing are close to the transcendence of suffering. They will enjoy the company of spiritual teachers and possess the fortune of benefiting themselves and others. They are a field of merit for hell beings, animals, and starving spirits. Within cyclic existence they possess and follow the Dharma. They will accomplish the ideals of those who possess the Dharma and also become stable in this accomplishment. They are not frightened or oppressed by rulers, robbers, water, or fire. Rather, they find joy within. They are seen as unassailable by other peers who possess the Dharma. Thus, killing should be given up.
“What goodness comes of refraining from stealing? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this by means of knowledge derived from hearing or through the divine eye. By giving up stealing one will escape the net of great avarice for objects owned by others. One will find relief in the present life. Taken into confidence by kings and ministers, as well as by courts, households, noble families, monastic congregations, and priestly gatherings, one will be regarded as delightful, dear, attractive, and authoritative. The enjoyments of such a person will be constant. And without bringing harm to others, one will have no fear of rulers, water, robbers, or fire. Unanticipated, such enjoyments will arise spontaneously. Once these have arisen, one will be a field of merit, embody discipline, embark upon a good path, and develop close ties with worldly beings. Furthermore, when separating from the body one will be born in the joyful divine realms. If the merit of this is dedicated by means of the path of deliverance, one will find deliverance and, in the same way as before, become a Brahmā, Māra, Śakra, or a universal monarch who rules the four continents and possesses the seven treasures. Likewise, those who delight in discipline will attain their respective forms of awakening.
“What are the effects of giving up sexual misconduct? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this by means of knowledge derived from hearing or through the divine eye. Giving up sexual misconduct leads to good deeds and virtuous action. One will be praised and trusted in the present life. One will not feel nervous around women. Kings and ministers will take one into their confidence. One’s spouse will never be stolen by someone else, but always act with respect and in accordance with one’s own intentions. Even in hard times there will not be any mockery, disrespect, or inclination to attack one another. One’s spouse will not be blamed by anyone and she will act like a mother or sister to the whole world, being free from any anger at the world.
“As before, when separating from one’s body, one will take birth within the joyful divine realms. When later the time has come to die in that god realm, one will be reborn as another god there. If, on the other hand, one has engaged in sexual misconduct, another god will, while one is still alive in that realm, be born among the divine maidens and become visible to them. The divine maidens will then jest, smile, and have fun with that god. Later, when one’s wife sees one is dying, she will abandon one to be with that other god. Thus, caught by the shackles of envy, one will take birth as a hell being. Resorting to, becoming habituated to, and increasing acts of sexual misconduct is a great obstacle. Therefore, giving up sexual misconduct will allow one to follow the great path of virtue and gain the fortune to transcend suffering.
“By giving up lying, which is incompatible with all virtuous inclinations, one upholds highly virtuous inclination. What, then, are the ripened effects of this in this present life? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this by means of knowledge derived from hearing or through the divine eye. By giving up lying one will be trusted even by people who have never seen or heard of oneself. Should one be lacking in terms of wealth, all one’s wishes will be fulfilled by both the people and the king. Like the moon that shines brightly in the midst of the other planets and celestial bodies, those who speak the truth will shine brightly amid all worldly people. Among all jewels, the great jewel of the truth is supreme and sublime. Among all that liberates us from all cycles of existence, the liberator of the truth is particularly exalted. Among all that turns us away from the lower realms, the repellent of the truth is supreme. Truth is the lamp of all lamps and the guide of all guides. Among all forms of substance, it is the substance of truth that removes the sickness of others. Truth is the force among all forces, the protector among all protectors, and the most exalted among all friends.
Those who possess the wealth of truth will never experience the poverty of falling into the lower realms. Instead, they will be close to the gods. Wherever such people are born they will take birth in a fine family and have an excellent physique. Everyone will find them appealing, delightful, attractive, and trustworthy. Such people will be imperceptible to rākṣasas and piśācas, and invulnerable to their harm. Whenever such people travel they will find plentiful and excellent lodging and medical treatment. Anything they may wish for will be fulfilled. Such people will experience supreme human happiness and, when the time of their death comes, they will separate from their bodies only to be born in the joyous divine realms, where they will enjoy extremely long lives, tremendous miraculous powers, and an exceedingly exalted status. Just as before, if one dedicates this in a pure and undefiled manner, it will bring the liberation of transcending suffering.
“As one practices virtuous actions, what are the effects of giving up divisive talk, as they ripen in this life and beyond? Spiritual practitioners who carefully observe inner phenomena see this by means of knowledge derived from hearing or through the divine eye. The ripened effect that is experienced in this life due to giving up divisive talk is to have steadfast friends, acquaintances, relatives, spouses, male servants, female servants, workers, and employees. One will not be led along by others, and none among one’s friends, the members of the royal court, or discordant relatives will be able to create any factions. Should one lose one’s wealth, one will not become destitute. Neither will one suffer any loss when encountering famine, isolated places, mountains, precipices, or temporary adversities. Should one criticize others, one will not be persecuted. At the royal court one will prevail, and one will not have any fear of water, weapons, or animosity. Such are the qualities associated with giving up the great stain that is divisive talk. Having died and separated from the body, one will be born in the joyful and divine higher realms. There great gatherings of affectionate goddesses of similar ilk will please one with flower garlands, colored powders, perfumes, and jewelry. Just as before, if one’s relinquishment of divisive talk is dedicated in a pure and undefiled manner, one will achieve the transcendence of suffering through the path of undefiled concentration.