Summary

The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs and thus has been significant for rulers‍—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere‍—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations through such purification. Reciting and internalizing this sūtra is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and also for the welfare of a state and the world.

In this sūtra, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu has a dream in which a prayer of confession emanates from a shining golden drum. He relates the prayer to the Buddha, and a number of deities then vow to protect it and its adherents. The ruler’s devotion to the sūtra is emphasized as important if the nation is to benefit. Toward the end of the sūtra are two well-known narratives of the Buddha’s previous lives: the account of the physician Jalavāhana, who saves and blesses numerous fish, and that of Prince Mahāsattva, who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs.

This is the longest version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light preserved in the Kangyur. It comprises thirty-one chapters and was translated into Tibetan primarily from Yijing’s Chinese translation in the early ninth century.

Acknowledgements

This sūtra was translated into English by Peter Alan Roberts. Ling Lung Chen, Wang Chipan, Xiaolong Diao, Ting Lee Ling, and H. S. Sum Cheuk Shing were consultants for the Chinese versions of the sūtra. Emily Bower was the project manager and editor. Tracy Davis was the copyeditor. With thanks to Michael Radich for sharing his research on the sūtra.

The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.

The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of Zhang Da Da.

Introduction

The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs, and therefore it has been significant for rulers‍—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere‍—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations. It is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and beneficial for the welfare of a state and of the world.

The work translated here is the Tibetan translation of the thirty-one-chapter version (Toh 555) of this sūtra. In the Tibetan canon, there are also the twenty-one-chapter (Toh 557) and twenty-nine-chapter (Toh 556) versions.

This sūtra’s principal chapter is the fourth, which describes the lay bodhisattva Ruciraketu having a dream in which he sees a brightly shining golden drum, hence the title of the sūtra. When a brahmin beats the drum, Ruciraketu hears in the drumbeats a hundred-verse prayer, and he subsequently recites that prayer to the Buddha.

Most of the following chapters are concerned with encouraging the recitation of this prayer and of the sūtra itself. They describe how various divine beings in this world revere the sūtra and promise to protect it and its adherents. These include the Four Mahārājas; Sthāvarā, who is the goddess of the earth; Sarasvatī, the goddess of wisdom, learning, and music; Śrī, the goddess of good fortune, better known in the present time as Lakṣmī; and the yakṣa general Saṃjñeya.

This sūtra emphasizes its importance for kings. It states that if they honor the reciters of this sūtra and arrange for its recitation and teaching, then their reign and their kingdom will prosper. They will avoid such calamities as invasion, famine, and so on. The sūtra also warns that if they fail to show such devotion, there will be disastrous results for both them and their kingdoms. Chapter 20 is dedicated to the subject of how to be a good king.

There are also chapters that deal with doctrine. Chapter 2 presents the view that a buddha never dies and so never passes into nirvāṇa. Therefore, there is no body and no physical relics of his body after his cremation, and so the Dharma never ceases to be taught. The passing of a buddha and the extinction of the Dharma are solely illusory manifestations, skillful methods to inspire beings to practice and to provide them with relics as objects for their devotion. The longer versions of the sūtra also contain chapter 3 (not present in Toh 557), which describes the nature of the three kāyas, and chapter 6 (also not present in Toh 557), which describes the ten bodhisattva bhūmis. Chapters 9 and 10 teach the view of emptiness.

Toward the end there are two narratives describing previous lives of the Buddha. Chapters 24 and 25 describe the physician Jalavāhana, who, as a result of performing Dharma recitations while standing in a lake, ensured the rebirth of ten thousand fish into the paradise of Trāyastriṃśa. In the preceding chapter, these same ten thousand devas receive the prophecy of their buddhahood. When the goddess of the Bodhi tree objects that they have not accomplished the necessary bodhisattva conduct in past lives to receive such a prophecy, the Buddha explains that this was unnecessary because they had devotion to this Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light.

The other past-life narrative, which is given in chapter 26, is one of the most famous in Buddhist literature‍—that of the prince who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs. An interesting feature of the story in this sūtra is that much of the narrative is dedicated to an evocative description of the intense grief of parents who have lost their child, emphasizing the sorrow that the prince’s action has brought them.

Tantric Rituals

As with other late Mahāyāna sūtras in which there is an emphasis on ritual, this text is classified in the Kangyur as a tantra, specifically as a Kriyā tantra, a class of tantras in which there is an emphasis on external ritual. The sūtra contains a description of how such rituals should be performed, and there are also passages that include lists of ingredients to place in a bath along with mantras to recite while bathing in order to achieve purification. This and the twenty-nine-chapter version also supply a number of dhāraṇīs to be recited in order to gain specific results.

One can also see that the seed of the later maṇḍalas of the five buddha families is in this sūtra, for in chapters 2 and 3, buddhas of the four directions appear to a layman who has a visionary dream. They include Akṣobhya from the east and Amitābha from the west, both buddhas and their realms already established in the Buddhist tradition with specific sūtras dedicated to them. There also appear the buddhas Ratnaketu from the south and Dundubhisvara from the north, who in later tantras are usually named Ratnasaṃbhava and Amoghasiddhi. In this sūtra, the central buddha in terms of these directions would be Śākyamuni himself. In the Buddhāvatamsaka Sūtra he is referred to as Vairocana, as the Buddha Vairocana is the buddha who manifests as all the buddhas throughout this trichiliocosm.

The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light in India

A version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light existed in India by the early fifth century ᴄᴇ, when it was translated into Chinese by Dharmakṣema (385–433) in 420, in a form that corresponds to the fragments of its translation into old Khotanese. The author of Precious Lamp of the Middle Way mentions in his commentary on the philosophy of the Middle Way that The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light contains profound teachings in the section on the absence of relics, this passage being within the chapter on the lifespan of the Buddha. The sūtra’s significance in Indian Buddhism is evident from the three tantras and ten commentaries that specify that it should be the text recited in one of the four directions when performing a maṇḍala rite. There are also five other texts in the Tengyur that emphasize the importance and status of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light and its recitation, including Śāntideva’s eighth-century Compendium of Training in which he provides two extracts from the sūtra that should be recited. There are also two recitation texts composed of extracts from the sūtra.

In addition to its importance for rites and recitations, the text is quoted on doctrinal points in Indian commentaries. Passages indicating that the Buddha never dies, that he leaves no relics, and that the Dharma never ceases are quoted in six texts, two of which cite the delightful verse that describes the impossibility of there being buddha relics, stating that there will be a buddha relic only when a ladder to the moon is built from rabbit horns.

The descriptions of buddha nature and the nature of the kāyas, which are only in the twenty-nine-chapter and this version of the sūtra, are quoted in two texts in the Tengyur, one written in Tibetan and one translated from Sanskrit by Rinchen Zangpo, although nothing is known about the author.

In Newar Buddhism this sūtra became and remains one of the nine principal sūtras called “the nine Dharmas,” which are considered the most important lengthy sūtras to be recited and offered to.

Sanskrit manuscripts of this sūtra survived as fragments discovered in Chinese Central Asia (Xinjiang) and as entire texts in Nepal, where the title is Suvarṇa­bhāsottama, with bhāsa being a synonym for prabhāsa, both meaning “light.”

The Sanskrit text of the sūtra was first edited in 1898, in Calcutta, India, by S. C. Das and S. C. Shastri. That was followed by the edition by B. Nanjio and H. Idzumi in Japan in 1931, and by the edition by Johannes Nobel (1887–1960) in 1937. This translation refers to the 1967 S. Bagchi edition.

The Sūtra outside India

The widespread popularity of this sūtra outside India is also evident from its translation not only into Tibetan and Chinese but also from Sanskrit into Khotanese; from Chinese into Tibetan, Sogdian, Uighur, Tangut, and Manchu; and from Tibetan into Mongolian. Its importance continues in recent times as is evident from new translations directly from Sanskrit into Mongolian, Oirat, and Japanese.

There are three surviving translations of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light in Chinese. The earliest of these was translated by Dharmakṣema (385–433). He was an Indian who came to China in 414, living first in Dunhuang. Then in 420 he went to Guzang, the capital of Northern Liang, one of the sixteen independent states of that time, situated in what is now the Gansu region in China’s northwest. There he studied Chinese and engaged in translation under the patronage of Juqu Mengxun (368–433), the ruler of Northern Liang. He also had the reputation of being “a master of spells,” and as a result of that reputation, toward the end of his reign, Juqu Mengxun became afraid that Dharmakṣema might be used against him by his adversaries and so he had him assassinated. Nobel believed that the Sanskrit in its present form is not earlier than the mid-fifth century and that Dharmakṣema translated from an earlier version. This opinion appears to be supported by the Sanskrit manuscript fragments discovered in Khotan.

The second surviving translation into Chinese is that by Bao Gui in 597. It is an amalgam of earlier translations that no longer exist and four chapters that were translated by Paramārtha (499–569). As there is no surviving Sanskrit for the additional chapters in the Chinese and Tibetan, Michael Radich has examined the evidence as to whether they are Indian or Chinese in origin.

The third translation was by Yijing (635–713), which was published in 703. Because of its clarity and literary style, this version became popular in China and was itself translated into Tibetan in the early ninth century. Yijing’s translation, compared to the Sanskrit and the Tibetan translation from Sanskrit, is freer, to the extent that Emmerick has stated it could not be used to reconstruct the original Sanskrit. Yijing spent thirty years in India and Sumatra and returned to China in 695. He brought with him four hundred Sanskrit texts, including The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and spent the first decade of the seventh century translating them.

The Mogao caves of Dunhuang, which were sealed from the eleventh century, contained a great number of manuscripts of the sūtra, particularly those of Yijing’s translation into Chinese. The sūtra became popular for its teachings on freeing oneself from the effects of bad karma. For example, Yijing’s Chinese translation (and the Uighur and Tangut versions derived from it) has a preface that states how the sūtra saved Zhang Judao, ruler of Tangut, from going to hell because he had slaughtered cattle for a big feast. This narrative is illustrated in a twelfth-century Tangut woodcut that is preserved in St. Petersburg.

The sūtra was of particular importance to monarchs, and starting in seventh-century Japan, the ritual of reciting this sūtra was considered important to perform for the benefit of the state.

The Sūtra in Tibet

The twenty-one-chapter version does not list its translators in the colophon. The twenty-nine-chapter version was translated by Jinamitra, Śilendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé in the early ninth century. Almost the entirety of the shorter version is present word for word in the twenty-nine-chapter version, so they either incorporated an earlier translation or extracted the shorter version from the longer.

This thirty-one-chapter version is a translation of Yijing’s Chinese version made by Gö Chödrup in the early ninth century. The Tibetan is clearer and more readable than in the other two versions, perhaps because it is less constrained by conforming to the Sanskrit, but also because the Chinese was a freer translation from the Sanskrit, which was done purposely to enhance its readability.

There are some Tibetan texts in the Tengyur that were authored by Tibetan translators active in the ninth century. The translator Kawa Paltsek quotes from the passages describing the Dharma body and the Buddha not leaving any relics because he has no body with bones and blood. Yeshé Dé wrote a text that has a number of references to this sūtra’s teachings on the kāyas and buddha nature, and to its description of the bhūmis.

Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, also known as Atiśa, whose pupils founded the influential Kadampa tradition in Tibet, is the author of three of the texts in the Tengyur that refer to this sūtra, including his most famous work, A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, which contains an encouragement to use the sūtra’s prayer both for purification and as a dedication prayer.

The commentary in the Tengyur that quotes from the sūtra more than any other‍—twenty times in all‍—is the translation by Gö Chödrup of An Extensive Commentary on the Sūtra that Elucidates the Profound Intention by the Korean monk Wŏnch’ŭk (613–96), who had migrated to China. This commentary by Wŏnch’ŭk in Tibetan translation became a particular influence on the thought of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelukpa school. The sūtra has been quoted by great masters in all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism and extracts from it were published in Tibet as numerous standalone texts‍—not only the confession prayer but also other chapters, such as the treatise on kingship. Its continuing significance is indicated by Pema Karpo (1527–92), the hierarch of the Drukpa Kagyü school, composing a confession prayer extracted from The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light at the request of Döndrup Dorjé, the ruler of Shigatsé.

An example of the way the sūtra was recited in Tibet is found in a version compiled by Ngawang Lobsang Chöden (1642–1714), the second Changkya Rinpoché.

Comparing the Versions

The twenty-one-chapter version (Toh 557) and the twenty-nine-chapter version (Toh 556) were both translated into Tibetan from Sanskrit, so that almost the entirety of the shorter version is present as an identical translation in the longer. In the version translated here (Toh 555), chapter 4 is the equivalent of chapters 3 and 4 in Toh 557. Chapters 9 and 10 are the equivalent of chapter 6, and chapters 11 and 12 are the equivalent of chapter 12. There are additional chapters in this version not found in Toh 557: chapters 3, 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 28, 29, and 30.

Chapter 5 is almost entirely composed of the contents of Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations (Toh 219), differing only in its introduction and conclusion. The twenty-nine-chapter version’s chapter 5 is identical in its translation to the sūtra as it appears in the Kangyur. Even where there are some minor differences between that chapter 5 and the sūtra in the Degé Kangyur version, those discrepancies do not exist in earlier Kangyurs. The translators of The Sūtra of Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations were Jinamitra, Dānaśīla, and Yeshé Dé, and that translation appears to have been incorporated by Jinamitra, Nalendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé into their translation of the twenty-nine-chapter Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. Chapter 6 primarily comprises The Sūtra of Akṣayamati’s Questions (Toh 89), without the introductory setting and with additional verses and an extra conclusion. That sūtra was translated by Silendrabodhi and Yeshé Dé, and their translation has been incorporated word-for-word into the translation of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light by Jinamitra, Nalendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé.

Only the Sanskrit that is equivalent to the twenty-one-chapter version survives. It divides the equivalent of chapter 10 in the Tibetan version into two, separating the homage to buddhas and bodhisattvas into its own small chapter. However, its final chapter is divided into two in the Tibetan, resulting in both having twenty-one chapters. There is no surviving Sanskrit for additional passages within the chapters or for the new chapters included in this thirty-one-chapter version.

In Tibetan, the twenty-nine-chapter version and this thirty-one-chapter version do appear to preserve passages that were lost from the twenty-one-chapter version (Toh 557). For example, chapter 12 in Toh 557, “The Treatise on Kingship,” begins abruptly: “At that time …,” having evidently lost the introductory narrative‍—present in the equivalent chapter (chapter 20) in the longer versions‍—that sets the action in a distant past.

This thirty-one-chapter version was translated into Tibetan from Chinese. The source text was Yijing’s seventh-century translation from Sanskrit into Chinese, and therefore the translation differs throughout, even though the content is essentially the same. There are many passages that are actually shorter versions of those in the translations from Sanskrit. Its greater length compared to the twenty-nine-chapter version (Toh 556) is primarily due to the addition of two chapters (29 and 30).

Translations into Western Languages

In 1958, Nobel published a German translation based on Yijing’s Chinese text. In 1970, Ronald Emmerick produced an English translation of the Sanskrit. In 2007, Zopa Rinpoche’s FPMT (Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition) produced a translation of the twenty-one-chapter version in Tibetan.

Detailed Summary of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light

Chapter 1: The Introduction

The Buddha is on Vulture Peak Mountain at Rājagṛha with a great assembly of bhikṣus, bodhisattvas, and deities. He states that he will teach a sūtra that will free beings from various worldly sufferings through its being recited and listened to.

Chapter 2: The Teaching of the Lifespan of the Tathāgata

In the town of Rājagṛha, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu wonders why the Buddha has only an eighty-year lifespan if he has no bad karma. His house miraculously transforms, and the buddhas of the four directions appear and tell him that the Buddha’s lifespan is, in fact, inconceivably long. Ruciraketu goes to Vulture Peak and tells the Buddha what occurred. The buddhas of the four directions appear on Vulture Peak and request the Buddha to teach The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. The Buddha states that he continues to teach on Vulture Peak and only appears to pass into nirvāṇa.

A brahmin of the Kauṇḍinya family named Vyākaraṇa asks to be given a relic when the Buddha passes away so that he might make offerings to it. A young man says to Vyākaraṇa that the Buddha will not pass away and there will never be relics. The Vyākaraṇa states that he knew this but made his request so that this truth would be revealed, and that the appearance of passing away and leaving relics is simply a skillful method to benefit beings.

Ruciraketu then asks why it is taught that buddhas pass away and leave relics. The Buddha states that this is a teaching with an implied meaning, and he then teaches on four sets of the true nirvāṇa’s ten qualities.

Then the four buddhas vanish, and Ruciraketu returns to his seat in the assembly.

Chapter 3: The Differentiation of the Three Kāyas

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra. In response to a question from the bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha, the Buddha describes the three kāyas or “bodies” that complete buddhahood comprises‍—the dharmakāya, saṃbhogakāya, and nirmāṇakāya. The nirmāṇakāya, or emanation body, is the manifestation of various kinds of bodies of individuals in accordance with the various situations of beings. The saṃbhogakāya, or enjoyment body, is the manifestation of perfect bodies that teach the ultimate truth to bodhisattvas. Neither of these kāyas, however, has ultimate reality, whereas the dharmakāya, or Dharma body, is the ultimate, featureless, true nature that is the basis of the other two kāyas, which appear spontaneously without thought and can be described as having both permanent and impermanent qualities. The Buddha gives various analogies to describe them. He also describes the progress to buddhahood through the ten bhūmis and the ten perfections.

Then Ākāśagarbha and others in the assembly describe four benefits that come to a land where The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light is taught.

Chapter 4: The Vision in a Dream of Purification Through Regret

This chapter corresponds to chapters 3 and 4 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

In his home in Rājagṛha, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu dreams of a brahmin beating a golden drum from which come a number of verses that he is able to remember. He goes to the Buddha on Vulture Peak to repeat those verses to him.

He begins by describing the dream in verse and then repeats the verses he heard, which begin with a prayer for the verses to benefit all beings. Then there are verses for the confession of past bad actions followed by a praise of the Buddha, a prayer that beings be freed from suffering, and finally the dedication of merit so that the reciter will attain enlightenment.

Chapter 5: The Purification of the Obscurations from Karma

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra. Light rays radiate from the Buddha, bringing happiness to all beings in the lower existences. On seeing that light, Śakra and other deities come to the Buddha. When the deities are gathered, Śakra asks the Buddha how to confess previous bad actions. The Buddha gives a recitation that should be done three times over the course of the day and three times at night in order for the deities to free themselves of karmic obscurations and to attain whatever is aspired to‍—from rebirth in a good human family or various paradises to the attainment of ultimate wisdom. The Buddha explains that they should also recite the words of rejoicing in the good actions of others, requesting the buddhas in all worlds to teach the Dharma, and requesting them to not pass away. The Buddha states that this creates greater merit than any other kind of Dharma practice and that they should recite a dedication of their merit to the enlightenment of all beings.

Then the assembly promises to promulgate this sūtra, and Śakra states that this sūtra can bring an end to the obscurations of karma. In response, the Buddha describes a buddha in the distant past named Great Precious King Illuminator and a woman named Precious Merit Radiance. The Buddha goes on to detail the four benefits to a king, four benefits to his ministers, four benefits to mendicants, and four benefits to brahmins that result from this sūtra being taught in their land.

Then Śakra and the others state that the Dharma will last in the world only as long as this sūtra does, and the Buddha concurs and encourages its reading and practice.

Chapter 6: The Dhāraṇīs of Complete Purification

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra, and in the twenty-nine-chapter version the corresponding chapter is called “The Purification of the Bhūmis.”

Blazing Light Rays of Unhindered Traits of Lions asks the Buddha what is meant by the term bodhicitta, “the enlightenment mind,” because the mind is not said to be an object of perception in enlightenment.

The Buddha states that there is no reality to such designations but there are the ten stages of the development of bodhicitta through the ten perfections. The Buddha then describes ten qualities that each of these perfections possesses, and he describes what is meant by the term perfection.

He then describes the omens that precede each of the ten bhūmis, the reason for the names of each of those bhūmis, the two kinds of ignorance that obscure each of the ten bhūmis, the perfection attained on each bhūmi, and the samādhi that causes the development of each of the ten developments of bodhicitta.

The Buddha next gives the dhāraṇī mantra that is obtained on each bhūmi and explains what it protects against.

After this, the great Brahmarāja praises The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and the Buddha states that only those with great merit can hear it and that those who hear it will obtain the dhāraṇīs and gain the ultimate result. The assembly promises to gather where this sūtra is taught and to aid its teacher.

Chapter 7: A Praise Using the Analogy of a Lotus

This is the equivalent of chapter 5 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

Speaking to a goddess, the Buddha repeats a praise of the buddhas in thirty-seven verses that was made by a king in the distant past who has now been reborn as that goddess.

Chapter 8: The Dhāraṇī of Golden Victory

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The Buddha tells the bodhisattva Sukhavihāra that in order to make offerings to the buddhas of the past, present, and future, one should have the dhāraṇī called golden victory. Its practitioner should first recite a specific homage to certain buddhas and bodhisattvas. Then the dhāraṇī, which is the mother of all buddhas, will fulfill all wishes and bring protection. Fifteen days of practice in isolation should accomplish one’s wishes; otherwise, one should continue until one’s wishes are fulfilled.

Chapter 9: The Teaching on the Nature of Emptiness

This is the equivalent of chapter 6 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The Buddha recites verses describing emptiness, which, he states, he has taught extensively in other sūtras. He describes how he has practiced the path for a long time and that it is impossible to calculate his wisdom.

Chapter 10: The Fulfillment of Prayers on the Basis of Emptiness

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The goddess Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light asks the Buddha about the equanimity of bodhisattva conduct. The Buddha teaches that the dharmadhātu, or Dharma realm, is beyond the extremes of existence and nonexistence. He explains that the five skandhas are neither separate from nor one with the dharmadhātu, otherwise everyone would already be enlightened or never be able to attain enlightenment. Therefore, bodhisattva conduct does not eliminate the relative and is never apart from the ultimate.

Then Brahmarāja asks Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light how she could possibly attain this state of enlightenment. She states that if she can do so, then all beings will become golden, and there will be a divine rain of flowers and divine music. This instantly occurs, and Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light’s body transforms, becoming identical to that of Brahmarāja. Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light describes to Brahmarāja how to practice bodhisattva conduct while knowing it has no reality, like a magical illusion.

Following this, the Buddha tells Brahmarāja to practice as Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light has. Brahmarāja and his entourage bow down to the now-male bodhisattva Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light. The Buddha prophesies that in the future Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light will be a buddha named Essence of the Glorious Blazing Jewel.

Five hundred thousand bhikṣus in the assembly attain the irreversible state, and the Buddha prophesies that in the distant future they will all become buddhas at the same time, all having the name King Who Is Ornamented by the Arrangement of Prayers.

The Buddha then tells Brahmarāja of the great power of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light and of how he himself had practiced and taught it in his previous lives, and that if it vanishes so will all other sūtras.

All the devas promise to protect the sūtra, its teachers, and the land where it is taught.

Chapter 11: The Four Mahārājas Look Upon Devas and Humans

This and the following chapter are the equivalent of chapter 7 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of this sūtra.

The Four Mahārājas, the protectors of the world, describe the sūtra as overcoming all calamities and how it benefits them through its being taught. They describe themselves as protectors of the world and promise that they will protect whoever teaches and recites this sūtra and will dispel problems for the king of that country and its population.

Chapter 12: The Four Mahārājas Protecting the Land

The Four Mahārājas and the Buddha describe the miraculous events that occur in the paradises when a king engages in the ritual of venerating the sūtra, and how all buddhas will congratulate him and prophesy his buddhahood. The Mahārājas describe how a king who wishes his realm to prosper and be happy should be devoted to the sūtra, and then they praise the Buddha in verse, and the Buddha praises the sūtra in verse.

Chapter 13: The Dhāraṇī of Nonattachment

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The Buddha says to the bhikṣu Śāriputra that the dhāraṇī of nonattachment is like a mother to bodhisattvas and is practiced by them all. It has no location in any phenomenon or time and is without origination, but its possession leads to the highest enlightenment. Offering to it is the same as offering to a buddha. At Śāriputra’s request, the Buddha recites the dhāraṇī. He describes its great benefit and states that it is the mother of all tathāgatas.

Chapter 14: The Precious Wish-Fulfilling Jewel Dhāraṇī

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The Buddha teaches Ānanda the names of lightning in the four principal directions. Those who know the names and write them down will be safe from lightning.

The Buddha then recites a Dravidian mantra. Avalokiteśvara recites another Dravidian mantra that protects from premature death. Vajrapāṇi recites a dhāraṇī and promises to protect those who write it out. Mahābrahmā then recites a mantra that will protect from premature death and end bad karma. Śakra recites a dhāraṇī vidyāmantra called vajraśani for freedom from danger and death. Then the Four Mahārājas recite a mantra that will protect from danger and death. Nāga kings recite the dhāraṇī called the wish-fulfilling jewel (which gives this chapter its name), which prevents all kinds of misfortune, and they recite another mantra that safeguards against poisons. The Buddha congratulates them all and everyone praises him.

Chapter 15: The Great Goddess Sarasvatī

The goddess Sarasvatī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra with wisdom and skill. She also gives a recipe for a cleansing liquid and a mantra that will prevent misfortune.

The Buddha praises her and teaches beneficial mantras. There then occurs a passage not present in the twenty-one-chapter version, where Sarasvatī recites verses describing how to perform a ritual for the fulfillment of wishes. The Kauṇḍinya brahmin Vyākaraṇa praises Sarasvatī in two sets of verses, the first of which is not present in the twenty-one-chapter version. In another passage not present in the twenty-one-chapter version, Vyākaraṇa teaches a supplication to Sarasvatī for the purpose of attaining wisdom and eloquence, and the chapter concludes with the Buddha congratulating Vyākaraṇa and Sarasvatī.

Chapter 16: The Great Goddess Śrī

The goddess Śrī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra and its preservation so that beings will have good fortune. She states she had been a follower of the Buddha Vaiḍūrya Golden Mountain Precious Flower Glorious Appearance’s Ocean of Qualities and that she brings good fortune to beings wherever she goes and inspires them to make offerings to that buddha. This chapter is equivalent to most of chapter 9 on Śrī in Toh 557, with the last part here made into a separate chapter.

Chapter 17: The Increase of Wealth by the Great Goddess Śrī

This chapter comprises the latter part of chapter 9 in the twenty-one-chapter version. It describes Śrī’s residence and teaches a mantra for her invocation with additional prayers not found in the twenty-one-chapter version. It also provides instructions for making offerings to her.

Chapter 18: Sthāvarā, the Goddess of the Earth

Summary

The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs and thus has been significant for rulers‍—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere‍—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations through such purification. Reciting and internalizing this sūtra is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and also for the welfare of a state and the world.

In this sūtra, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu has a dream in which a prayer of confession emanates from a shining golden drum. He relates the prayer to the Buddha, and a number of deities then vow to protect it and its adherents. The ruler’s devotion to the sūtra is emphasized as important if the nation is to benefit. Toward the end of the sūtra are two well-known narratives of the Buddha’s previous lives: the account of the physician Jalavāhana, who saves and blesses numerous fish, and that of Prince Mahāsattva, who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs.

This is the longest version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light preserved in the Kangyur. It comprises thirty-one chapters and was translated into Tibetan primarily from Yijing’s Chinese translation in the early ninth century.

Acknowledgements

This sūtra was translated into English by Peter Alan Roberts. Ling Lung Chen, Wang Chipan, Xiaolong Diao, Ting Lee Ling, and H. S. Sum Cheuk Shing were consultants for the Chinese versions of the sūtra. Emily Bower was the project manager and editor. Tracy Davis was the copyeditor. With thanks to Michael Radich for sharing his research on the sūtra.

The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.

The translation of this text has been made possible through the generous sponsorship of Zhang Da Da.

Introduction

The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light has held great importance in Buddhism for its instructions on the purification of karma. In particular, much of the sūtra is specifically addressed to monarchs, and therefore it has been significant for rulers‍—not only in India but also in China, Japan, Mongolia, and elsewhere‍—who wished to ensure the well-being of their nations. It is understood to be efficacious for personal purification and beneficial for the welfare of a state and of the world.

The work translated here is the Tibetan translation of the thirty-one-chapter version (Toh 555) of this sūtra. In the Tibetan canon, there are also the twenty-one-chapter (Toh 557) and twenty-nine-chapter (Toh 556) versions.

This sūtra’s principal chapter is the fourth, which describes the lay bodhisattva Ruciraketu having a dream in which he sees a brightly shining golden drum, hence the title of the sūtra. When a brahmin beats the drum, Ruciraketu hears in the drumbeats a hundred-verse prayer, and he subsequently recites that prayer to the Buddha.

Most of the following chapters are concerned with encouraging the recitation of this prayer and of the sūtra itself. They describe how various divine beings in this world revere the sūtra and promise to protect it and its adherents. These include the Four Mahārājas; Sthāvarā, who is the goddess of the earth; Sarasvatī, the goddess of wisdom, learning, and music; Śrī, the goddess of good fortune, better known in the present time as Lakṣmī; and the yakṣa general Saṃjñeya.

This sūtra emphasizes its importance for kings. It states that if they honor the reciters of this sūtra and arrange for its recitation and teaching, then their reign and their kingdom will prosper. They will avoid such calamities as invasion, famine, and so on. The sūtra also warns that if they fail to show such devotion, there will be disastrous results for both them and their kingdoms. Chapter 20 is dedicated to the subject of how to be a good king.

There are also chapters that deal with doctrine. Chapter 2 presents the view that a buddha never dies and so never passes into nirvāṇa. Therefore, there is no body and no physical relics of his body after his cremation, and so the Dharma never ceases to be taught. The passing of a buddha and the extinction of the Dharma are solely illusory manifestations, skillful methods to inspire beings to practice and to provide them with relics as objects for their devotion. The longer versions of the sūtra also contain chapter 3 (not present in Toh 557), which describes the nature of the three kāyas, and chapter 6 (also not present in Toh 557), which describes the ten bodhisattva bhūmis. Chapters 9 and 10 teach the view of emptiness.

Toward the end there are two narratives describing previous lives of the Buddha. Chapters 24 and 25 describe the physician Jalavāhana, who, as a result of performing Dharma recitations while standing in a lake, ensured the rebirth of ten thousand fish into the paradise of Trāyastriṃśa. In the preceding chapter, these same ten thousand devas receive the prophecy of their buddhahood. When the goddess of the Bodhi tree objects that they have not accomplished the necessary bodhisattva conduct in past lives to receive such a prophecy, the Buddha explains that this was unnecessary because they had devotion to this Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light.

The other past-life narrative, which is given in chapter 26, is one of the most famous in Buddhist literature‍—that of the prince who gives his body to a hungry tigress and her cubs. An interesting feature of the story in this sūtra is that much of the narrative is dedicated to an evocative description of the intense grief of parents who have lost their child, emphasizing the sorrow that the prince’s action has brought them.

Tantric Rituals

As with other late Mahāyāna sūtras in which there is an emphasis on ritual, this text is classified in the Kangyur as a tantra, specifically as a Kriyā tantra, a class of tantras in which there is an emphasis on external ritual. The sūtra contains a description of how such rituals should be performed, and there are also passages that include lists of ingredients to place in a bath along with mantras to recite while bathing in order to achieve purification. This and the twenty-nine-chapter version also supply a number of dhāraṇīs to be recited in order to gain specific results.

One can also see that the seed of the later maṇḍalas of the five buddha families is in this sūtra, for in chapters 2 and 3, buddhas of the four directions appear to a layman who has a visionary dream. They include Akṣobhya from the east and Amitābha from the west, both buddhas and their realms already established in the Buddhist tradition with specific sūtras dedicated to them. There also appear the buddhas Ratnaketu from the south and Dundubhisvara from the north, who in later tantras are usually named Ratnasaṃbhava and Amoghasiddhi. In this sūtra, the central buddha in terms of these directions would be Śākyamuni himself. In the Buddhāvatamsaka Sūtra he is referred to as Vairocana, as the Buddha Vairocana is the buddha who manifests as all the buddhas throughout this trichiliocosm.

The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light in India

A version of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light existed in India by the early fifth century ᴄᴇ, when it was translated into Chinese by Dharmakṣema (385–433) in 420, in a form that corresponds to the fragments of its translation into old Khotanese. The author of Precious Lamp of the Middle Way mentions in his commentary on the philosophy of the Middle Way that The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light contains profound teachings in the section on the absence of relics, this passage being within the chapter on the lifespan of the Buddha. The sūtra’s significance in Indian Buddhism is evident from the three tantras and ten commentaries that specify that it should be the text recited in one of the four directions when performing a maṇḍala rite. There are also five other texts in the Tengyur that emphasize the importance and status of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light and its recitation, including Śāntideva’s eighth-century Compendium of Training in which he provides two extracts from the sūtra that should be recited. There are also two recitation texts composed of extracts from the sūtra.

In addition to its importance for rites and recitations, the text is quoted on doctrinal points in Indian commentaries. Passages indicating that the Buddha never dies, that he leaves no relics, and that the Dharma never ceases are quoted in six texts, two of which cite the delightful verse that describes the impossibility of there being buddha relics, stating that there will be a buddha relic only when a ladder to the moon is built from rabbit horns.

The descriptions of buddha nature and the nature of the kāyas, which are only in the twenty-nine-chapter and this version of the sūtra, are quoted in two texts in the Tengyur, one written in Tibetan and one translated from Sanskrit by Rinchen Zangpo, although nothing is known about the author.

In Newar Buddhism this sūtra became and remains one of the nine principal sūtras called “the nine Dharmas,” which are considered the most important lengthy sūtras to be recited and offered to.

Sanskrit manuscripts of this sūtra survived as fragments discovered in Chinese Central Asia (Xinjiang) and as entire texts in Nepal, where the title is Suvarṇa­bhāsottama, with bhāsa being a synonym for prabhāsa, both meaning “light.”

The Sanskrit text of the sūtra was first edited in 1898, in Calcutta, India, by S. C. Das and S. C. Shastri. That was followed by the edition by B. Nanjio and H. Idzumi in Japan in 1931, and by the edition by Johannes Nobel (1887–1960) in 1937. This translation refers to the 1967 S. Bagchi edition.

The Sūtra outside India

The widespread popularity of this sūtra outside India is also evident from its translation not only into Tibetan and Chinese but also from Sanskrit into Khotanese; from Chinese into Tibetan, Sogdian, Uighur, Tangut, and Manchu; and from Tibetan into Mongolian. Its importance continues in recent times as is evident from new translations directly from Sanskrit into Mongolian, Oirat, and Japanese.

There are three surviving translations of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light in Chinese. The earliest of these was translated by Dharmakṣema (385–433). He was an Indian who came to China in 414, living first in Dunhuang. Then in 420 he went to Guzang, the capital of Northern Liang, one of the sixteen independent states of that time, situated in what is now the Gansu region in China’s northwest. There he studied Chinese and engaged in translation under the patronage of Juqu Mengxun (368–433), the ruler of Northern Liang. He also had the reputation of being “a master of spells,” and as a result of that reputation, toward the end of his reign, Juqu Mengxun became afraid that Dharmakṣema might be used against him by his adversaries and so he had him assassinated. Nobel believed that the Sanskrit in its present form is not earlier than the mid-fifth century and that Dharmakṣema translated from an earlier version. This opinion appears to be supported by the Sanskrit manuscript fragments discovered in Khotan.

The second surviving translation into Chinese is that by Bao Gui in 597. It is an amalgam of earlier translations that no longer exist and four chapters that were translated by Paramārtha (499–569). As there is no surviving Sanskrit for the additional chapters in the Chinese and Tibetan, Michael Radich has examined the evidence as to whether they are Indian or Chinese in origin.

The third translation was by Yijing (635–713), which was published in 703. Because of its clarity and literary style, this version became popular in China and was itself translated into Tibetan in the early ninth century. Yijing’s translation, compared to the Sanskrit and the Tibetan translation from Sanskrit, is freer, to the extent that Emmerick has stated it could not be used to reconstruct the original Sanskrit. Yijing spent thirty years in India and Sumatra and returned to China in 695. He brought with him four hundred Sanskrit texts, including The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and spent the first decade of the seventh century translating them.

The Mogao caves of Dunhuang, which were sealed from the eleventh century, contained a great number of manuscripts of the sūtra, particularly those of Yijing’s translation into Chinese. The sūtra became popular for its teachings on freeing oneself from the effects of bad karma. For example, Yijing’s Chinese translation (and the Uighur and Tangut versions derived from it) has a preface that states how the sūtra saved Zhang Judao, ruler of Tangut, from going to hell because he had slaughtered cattle for a big feast. This narrative is illustrated in a twelfth-century Tangut woodcut that is preserved in St. Petersburg.

The sūtra was of particular importance to monarchs, and starting in seventh-century Japan, the ritual of reciting this sūtra was considered important to perform for the benefit of the state.

The Sūtra in Tibet

The twenty-one-chapter version does not list its translators in the colophon. The twenty-nine-chapter version was translated by Jinamitra, Śilendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé in the early ninth century. Almost the entirety of the shorter version is present word for word in the twenty-nine-chapter version, so they either incorporated an earlier translation or extracted the shorter version from the longer.

This thirty-one-chapter version is a translation of Yijing’s Chinese version made by Gö Chödrup in the early ninth century. The Tibetan is clearer and more readable than in the other two versions, perhaps because it is less constrained by conforming to the Sanskrit, but also because the Chinese was a freer translation from the Sanskrit, which was done purposely to enhance its readability.

There are some Tibetan texts in the Tengyur that were authored by Tibetan translators active in the ninth century. The translator Kawa Paltsek quotes from the passages describing the Dharma body and the Buddha not leaving any relics because he has no body with bones and blood. Yeshé Dé wrote a text that has a number of references to this sūtra’s teachings on the kāyas and buddha nature, and to its description of the bhūmis.

Dīpaṁkaraśrījñāna, also known as Atiśa, whose pupils founded the influential Kadampa tradition in Tibet, is the author of three of the texts in the Tengyur that refer to this sūtra, including his most famous work, A Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, which contains an encouragement to use the sūtra’s prayer both for purification and as a dedication prayer.

The commentary in the Tengyur that quotes from the sūtra more than any other‍—twenty times in all‍—is the translation by Gö Chödrup of An Extensive Commentary on the Sūtra that Elucidates the Profound Intention by the Korean monk Wŏnch’ŭk (613–96), who had migrated to China. This commentary by Wŏnch’ŭk in Tibetan translation became a particular influence on the thought of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelukpa school. The sūtra has been quoted by great masters in all the schools of Tibetan Buddhism and extracts from it were published in Tibet as numerous standalone texts‍—not only the confession prayer but also other chapters, such as the treatise on kingship. Its continuing significance is indicated by Pema Karpo (1527–92), the hierarch of the Drukpa Kagyü school, composing a confession prayer extracted from The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light at the request of Döndrup Dorjé, the ruler of Shigatsé.

An example of the way the sūtra was recited in Tibet is found in a version compiled by Ngawang Lobsang Chöden (1642–1714), the second Changkya Rinpoché.

Comparing the Versions

The twenty-one-chapter version (Toh 557) and the twenty-nine-chapter version (Toh 556) were both translated into Tibetan from Sanskrit, so that almost the entirety of the shorter version is present as an identical translation in the longer. In the version translated here (Toh 555), chapter 4 is the equivalent of chapters 3 and 4 in Toh 557. Chapters 9 and 10 are the equivalent of chapter 6, and chapters 11 and 12 are the equivalent of chapter 12. There are additional chapters in this version not found in Toh 557: chapters 3, 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 28, 29, and 30.

Chapter 5 is almost entirely composed of the contents of Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations (Toh 219), differing only in its introduction and conclusion. The twenty-nine-chapter version’s chapter 5 is identical in its translation to the sūtra as it appears in the Kangyur. Even where there are some minor differences between that chapter 5 and the sūtra in the Degé Kangyur version, those discrepancies do not exist in earlier Kangyurs. The translators of The Sūtra of Putting an End to Karmic Obscurations were Jinamitra, Dānaśīla, and Yeshé Dé, and that translation appears to have been incorporated by Jinamitra, Nalendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé into their translation of the twenty-nine-chapter Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. Chapter 6 primarily comprises The Sūtra of Akṣayamati’s Questions (Toh 89), without the introductory setting and with additional verses and an extra conclusion. That sūtra was translated by Silendrabodhi and Yeshé Dé, and their translation has been incorporated word-for-word into the translation of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light by Jinamitra, Nalendrabodhi, and Yeshé Dé.

Only the Sanskrit that is equivalent to the twenty-one-chapter version survives. It divides the equivalent of chapter 10 in the Tibetan version into two, separating the homage to buddhas and bodhisattvas into its own small chapter. However, its final chapter is divided into two in the Tibetan, resulting in both having twenty-one chapters. There is no surviving Sanskrit for additional passages within the chapters or for the new chapters included in this thirty-one-chapter version.

In Tibetan, the twenty-nine-chapter version and this thirty-one-chapter version do appear to preserve passages that were lost from the twenty-one-chapter version (Toh 557). For example, chapter 12 in Toh 557, “The Treatise on Kingship,” begins abruptly: “At that time …,” having evidently lost the introductory narrative‍—present in the equivalent chapter (chapter 20) in the longer versions‍—that sets the action in a distant past.

This thirty-one-chapter version was translated into Tibetan from Chinese. The source text was Yijing’s seventh-century translation from Sanskrit into Chinese, and therefore the translation differs throughout, even though the content is essentially the same. There are many passages that are actually shorter versions of those in the translations from Sanskrit. Its greater length compared to the twenty-nine-chapter version (Toh 556) is primarily due to the addition of two chapters (29 and 30).

Translations into Western Languages

In 1958, Nobel published a German translation based on Yijing’s Chinese text. In 1970, Ronald Emmerick produced an English translation of the Sanskrit. In 2007, Zopa Rinpoche’s FPMT (Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition) produced a translation of the twenty-one-chapter version in Tibetan.

Detailed Summary of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light

Chapter 1: The Introduction

The Buddha is on Vulture Peak Mountain at Rājagṛha with a great assembly of bhikṣus, bodhisattvas, and deities. He states that he will teach a sūtra that will free beings from various worldly sufferings through its being recited and listened to.

Chapter 2: The Teaching of the Lifespan of the Tathāgata

In the town of Rājagṛha, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu wonders why the Buddha has only an eighty-year lifespan if he has no bad karma. His house miraculously transforms, and the buddhas of the four directions appear and tell him that the Buddha’s lifespan is, in fact, inconceivably long. Ruciraketu goes to Vulture Peak and tells the Buddha what occurred. The buddhas of the four directions appear on Vulture Peak and request the Buddha to teach The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light. The Buddha states that he continues to teach on Vulture Peak and only appears to pass into nirvāṇa.

A brahmin of the Kauṇḍinya family named Vyākaraṇa asks to be given a relic when the Buddha passes away so that he might make offerings to it. A young man says to Vyākaraṇa that the Buddha will not pass away and there will never be relics. The Vyākaraṇa states that he knew this but made his request so that this truth would be revealed, and that the appearance of passing away and leaving relics is simply a skillful method to benefit beings.

Ruciraketu then asks why it is taught that buddhas pass away and leave relics. The Buddha states that this is a teaching with an implied meaning, and he then teaches on four sets of the true nirvāṇa’s ten qualities.

Then the four buddhas vanish, and Ruciraketu returns to his seat in the assembly.

Chapter 3: The Differentiation of the Three Kāyas

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra. In response to a question from the bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha, the Buddha describes the three kāyas or “bodies” that complete buddhahood comprises‍—the dharmakāya, saṃbhogakāya, and nirmāṇakāya. The nirmāṇakāya, or emanation body, is the manifestation of various kinds of bodies of individuals in accordance with the various situations of beings. The saṃbhogakāya, or enjoyment body, is the manifestation of perfect bodies that teach the ultimate truth to bodhisattvas. Neither of these kāyas, however, has ultimate reality, whereas the dharmakāya, or Dharma body, is the ultimate, featureless, true nature that is the basis of the other two kāyas, which appear spontaneously without thought and can be described as having both permanent and impermanent qualities. The Buddha gives various analogies to describe them. He also describes the progress to buddhahood through the ten bhūmis and the ten perfections.

Then Ākāśagarbha and others in the assembly describe four benefits that come to a land where The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light is taught.

Chapter 4: The Vision in a Dream of Purification Through Regret

This chapter corresponds to chapters 3 and 4 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

In his home in Rājagṛha, the bodhisattva Ruciraketu dreams of a brahmin beating a golden drum from which come a number of verses that he is able to remember. He goes to the Buddha on Vulture Peak to repeat those verses to him.

He begins by describing the dream in verse and then repeats the verses he heard, which begin with a prayer for the verses to benefit all beings. Then there are verses for the confession of past bad actions followed by a praise of the Buddha, a prayer that beings be freed from suffering, and finally the dedication of merit so that the reciter will attain enlightenment.

Chapter 5: The Purification of the Obscurations from Karma

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra. Light rays radiate from the Buddha, bringing happiness to all beings in the lower existences. On seeing that light, Śakra and other deities come to the Buddha. When the deities are gathered, Śakra asks the Buddha how to confess previous bad actions. The Buddha gives a recitation that should be done three times over the course of the day and three times at night in order for the deities to free themselves of karmic obscurations and to attain whatever is aspired to‍—from rebirth in a good human family or various paradises to the attainment of ultimate wisdom. The Buddha explains that they should also recite the words of rejoicing in the good actions of others, requesting the buddhas in all worlds to teach the Dharma, and requesting them to not pass away. The Buddha states that this creates greater merit than any other kind of Dharma practice and that they should recite a dedication of their merit to the enlightenment of all beings.

Then the assembly promises to promulgate this sūtra, and Śakra states that this sūtra can bring an end to the obscurations of karma. In response, the Buddha describes a buddha in the distant past named Great Precious King Illuminator and a woman named Precious Merit Radiance. The Buddha goes on to detail the four benefits to a king, four benefits to his ministers, four benefits to mendicants, and four benefits to brahmins that result from this sūtra being taught in their land.

Then Śakra and the others state that the Dharma will last in the world only as long as this sūtra does, and the Buddha concurs and encourages its reading and practice.

Chapter 6: The Dhāraṇīs of Complete Purification

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra, and in the twenty-nine-chapter version the corresponding chapter is called “The Purification of the Bhūmis.”

Blazing Light Rays of Unhindered Traits of Lions asks the Buddha what is meant by the term bodhicitta, “the enlightenment mind,” because the mind is not said to be an object of perception in enlightenment.

The Buddha states that there is no reality to such designations but there are the ten stages of the development of bodhicitta through the ten perfections. The Buddha then describes ten qualities that each of these perfections possesses, and he describes what is meant by the term perfection.

He then describes the omens that precede each of the ten bhūmis, the reason for the names of each of those bhūmis, the two kinds of ignorance that obscure each of the ten bhūmis, the perfection attained on each bhūmi, and the samādhi that causes the development of each of the ten developments of bodhicitta.

The Buddha next gives the dhāraṇī mantra that is obtained on each bhūmi and explains what it protects against.

After this, the great Brahmarāja praises The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light, and the Buddha states that only those with great merit can hear it and that those who hear it will obtain the dhāraṇīs and gain the ultimate result. The assembly promises to gather where this sūtra is taught and to aid its teacher.

Chapter 7: A Praise Using the Analogy of a Lotus

This is the equivalent of chapter 5 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

Speaking to a goddess, the Buddha repeats a praise of the buddhas in thirty-seven verses that was made by a king in the distant past who has now been reborn as that goddess.

Chapter 8: The Dhāraṇī of Golden Victory

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The Buddha tells the bodhisattva Sukhavihāra that in order to make offerings to the buddhas of the past, present, and future, one should have the dhāraṇī called golden victory. Its practitioner should first recite a specific homage to certain buddhas and bodhisattvas. Then the dhāraṇī, which is the mother of all buddhas, will fulfill all wishes and bring protection. Fifteen days of practice in isolation should accomplish one’s wishes; otherwise, one should continue until one’s wishes are fulfilled.

Chapter 9: The Teaching on the Nature of Emptiness

This is the equivalent of chapter 6 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The Buddha recites verses describing emptiness, which, he states, he has taught extensively in other sūtras. He describes how he has practiced the path for a long time and that it is impossible to calculate his wisdom.

Chapter 10: The Fulfillment of Prayers on the Basis of Emptiness

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The goddess Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light asks the Buddha about the equanimity of bodhisattva conduct. The Buddha teaches that the dharmadhātu, or Dharma realm, is beyond the extremes of existence and nonexistence. He explains that the five skandhas are neither separate from nor one with the dharmadhātu, otherwise everyone would already be enlightened or never be able to attain enlightenment. Therefore, bodhisattva conduct does not eliminate the relative and is never apart from the ultimate.

Then Brahmarāja asks Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light how she could possibly attain this state of enlightenment. She states that if she can do so, then all beings will become golden, and there will be a divine rain of flowers and divine music. This instantly occurs, and Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light’s body transforms, becoming identical to that of Brahmarāja. Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light describes to Brahmarāja how to practice bodhisattva conduct while knowing it has no reality, like a magical illusion.

Following this, the Buddha tells Brahmarāja to practice as Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light has. Brahmarāja and his entourage bow down to the now-male bodhisattva Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light. The Buddha prophesies that in the future Wish-Fulfilling Radiating Light will be a buddha named Essence of the Glorious Blazing Jewel.

Five hundred thousand bhikṣus in the assembly attain the irreversible state, and the Buddha prophesies that in the distant future they will all become buddhas at the same time, all having the name King Who Is Ornamented by the Arrangement of Prayers.

The Buddha then tells Brahmarāja of the great power of The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light and of how he himself had practiced and taught it in his previous lives, and that if it vanishes so will all other sūtras.

All the devas promise to protect the sūtra, its teachers, and the land where it is taught.

Chapter 11: The Four Mahārājas Look Upon Devas and Humans

This and the following chapter are the equivalent of chapter 7 in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of this sūtra.

The Four Mahārājas, the protectors of the world, describe the sūtra as overcoming all calamities and how it benefits them through its being taught. They describe themselves as protectors of the world and promise that they will protect whoever teaches and recites this sūtra and will dispel problems for the king of that country and its population.

Chapter 12: The Four Mahārājas Protecting the Land

The Four Mahārājas and the Buddha describe the miraculous events that occur in the paradises when a king engages in the ritual of venerating the sūtra, and how all buddhas will congratulate him and prophesy his buddhahood. The Mahārājas describe how a king who wishes his realm to prosper and be happy should be devoted to the sūtra, and then they praise the Buddha in verse, and the Buddha praises the sūtra in verse.

Chapter 13: The Dhāraṇī of Nonattachment

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The Buddha says to the bhikṣu Śāriputra that the dhāraṇī of nonattachment is like a mother to bodhisattvas and is practiced by them all. It has no location in any phenomenon or time and is without origination, but its possession leads to the highest enlightenment. Offering to it is the same as offering to a buddha. At Śāriputra’s request, the Buddha recites the dhāraṇī. He describes its great benefit and states that it is the mother of all tathāgatas.

Chapter 14: The Precious Wish-Fulfilling Jewel Dhāraṇī

This chapter is not present in the shorter twenty-one-chapter version of the sūtra.

The Buddha teaches Ānanda the names of lightning in the four principal directions. Those who know the names and write them down will be safe from lightning.

The Buddha then recites a Dravidian mantra. Avalokiteśvara recites another Dravidian mantra that protects from premature death. Vajrapāṇi recites a dhāraṇī and promises to protect those who write it out. Mahābrahmā then recites a mantra that will protect from premature death and end bad karma. Śakra recites a dhāraṇī vidyāmantra called vajraśani for freedom from danger and death. Then the Four Mahārājas recite a mantra that will protect from danger and death. Nāga kings recite the dhāraṇī called the wish-fulfilling jewel (which gives this chapter its name), which prevents all kinds of misfortune, and they recite another mantra that safeguards against poisons. The Buddha congratulates them all and everyone praises him.

Chapter 15: The Great Goddess Sarasvatī

The goddess Sarasvatī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra with wisdom and skill. She also gives a recipe for a cleansing liquid and a mantra that will prevent misfortune.

The Buddha praises her and teaches beneficial mantras. There then occurs a passage not present in the twenty-one-chapter version, where Sarasvatī recites verses describing how to perform a ritual for the fulfillment of wishes. The Kauṇḍinya brahmin Vyākaraṇa praises Sarasvatī in two sets of verses, the first of which is not present in the twenty-one-chapter version. In another passage not present in the twenty-one-chapter version, Vyākaraṇa teaches a supplication to Sarasvatī for the purpose of attaining wisdom and eloquence, and the chapter concludes with the Buddha congratulating Vyākaraṇa and Sarasvatī.

Chapter 16: The Great Goddess Śrī

The goddess Śrī promises to aid those who recite the sūtra and its preservation so that beings will have good fortune. She states she had been a follower of the Buddha Vaiḍūrya Golden Mountain Precious Flower Glorious Appearance’s Ocean of Qualities and that she brings good fortune to beings wherever she goes and inspires them to make offerings to that buddha. This chapter is equivalent to most of chapter 9 on Śrī in Toh 557, with the last part here made into a separate chapter.

Chapter 17: The Increase of Wealth by the Great Goddess Śrī

This chapter comprises the latter part of chapter 9 in the twenty-one-chapter version. It describes Śrī’s residence and teaches a mantra for her invocation with additional prayers not found in the twenty-one-chapter version. It also provides instructions for making offerings to her.

Chapter 18: Sthāvarā, the Goddess of the Earth