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A further hint that leaves room for such speculation is the traditional narrative according to which the Buddha was not invited to Śrāvastī either by King Prasenajit or by any other member of the ruling family, but instead by the wealthy merchant Anāthapiṇḍada, who then had to pay Prasenajit’s son Prince Jeta a huge sum of money for land on which to build a vihāra to accommodate the Buddha and his followers. This was in stark contrast to the insistent invitations, welcome, patronage, and provision of resources extended to the Buddha by Bimbisara, king of Magadha.
Degé Kangyur vol. 4 (’dul ba, nga) F.89.b et seq. See Miller et al., The Chapter on Schisms in the Saṅgha, 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha (forthcoming).
“Friends” (grogs po dag) is clearly in the plural in the Tibetan, but it is unclear whom Surata is addressing.
This translation follows the reading brtson par mi bya ba attested in the Yongle, Kangxi, Narthang, and Lhasa versions of the text. The Degé reads btson par mi bya ba.
The Stok Palace version has sred pa here, which could be read as “attachment” or “craving.” The Degé reads srid pa.
The ocean is said to be the source of precious jewels. So even though the nāgas who live there have extensive access to riches, they still are not satisfied.
Though this is describing a quality of Surata, “gentleness” (des pa) here happens to be the same word for his name.
The phrase here, lhag pa’i bsam pa yongs su dag pa, seems to suggest lhag bsam rnam dag, a technical term describing a stage preceding the development of full bodhicitta where one takes on the personal responsibility to eliminate the suffering of all sentient beings.
Here we follow the Kangxi, Narthang, Lhasa, Stok Palace, and Yongle versions in reading mngon par byed pa med pa (Skt. anabhisaṃskāra), where the Degé reads mngon par byed pa (Skt. abhisaṃskāra).
These are four of the “five eyes” (Tib. spyan lnga; Skt. pañcacakṣuḥ) or five types of extraordinary vision possessed by a buddha. The five are the flesh eye, divine eye, wisdom eye, dharma eye, and buddha eye. The flesh eye is omitted in this list.
These are the “five uncontaminated components” (Tib. zag med phung po lnga, Skt. pañcānāsravaskandha): the component of ethics, the component of concentration, the component of wisdom, the component of liberation, and the component of gnosis seeing liberation.
The dman ma in the phrase here, rkang pa’i dman mar gyur pa, can denote “old” or “left over.” In colloquial English, we might call the cloth “used clothing.”
The Stok Palace, Lhasa, Kangxi, Narthang, and Yongle Kangyurs omit “gods” and instead have “children of the lineage” (rigs kyi bu gang bdag gis).
“Imperturbable” (brtan po) here may be a play on the meaning of Akṣobhya’s name, which is “immovable.”
This seems a paltry number of years for Surata’s future Dharma teachings to persist. However, this is the literal number suggested by the Tibetan, “lo ni brgyad cu dag las bzhi lhag.” It may be a shorthand of 84,000, which is a significant number in Buddhist texts.
Lit. “Intense Delight.” The universe, or buddhafield, of the Tathāgata Akṣobhya.
In Sanskrit, “Immovable,” the name of a tathāgata. In Surata’s next life, he returns to Abhirati, the realm of Akṣobhya.
A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).
Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.
A wealthy merchant in the town of Śrāvastī, famous for his generosity to the poor, who became a patron of the Buddha Śākyamuni. He bought Prince Jeta’s Grove (Skt. Jetavana), to be the Buddha’s first monastery, a place where the monks could stay during the monsoon.
A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
Literally “the mind of awakening,” but more technically, one’s particular aspiration to become fully awakened for the specific purpose of liberating all sentient beings. This is the necessary and sufficient condition to be a bodhisattva.
A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).
The god of the moon; the moon personified.
Detachment is traditionally categorized as being of three types: (1) detachment or seclusion of the body (kāyaviveka), which refers to remaining in solitude free from desirous or disturbing objects; (2) detachment or seclusion of the mind (cittaviveka), which is mental detachment from desirous or disturbing objects; and, (3) detachment or seclusion from the “substrate” (upadhiviveka), which indicates detachment from all things that perpetuate rebirth, including the five aggregates, the kleśas, karma, etc. This last category is what is being referenced here.
As incantations or spells, dhāraṇīs are mnemonic formulas possessed by advanced bodhisattvas that contain a quintessence of their attainments. The same term in Sanskrit and Tibetan also refers to a highly developed power present in bodhisattvas that is a process of memory and recall of detailed teachings. This is best translated “retention” in certain contexts.
The four qualities that are said to result in rebirth in the paradise of Brahmā: limitless love, compassion, rejoicing, and equanimity.
These are the eight upavasatha vows, similar to the commitments of a monk, but maintained only for one day. On such days one pledges: (1) not to kill, (2) not to steal, (3) not to engage in sexual intercourse, (4) not to lie, (5) not to partake of any intoxicants, (6) not to sing or dance, (7) not to eat after noon, and (8) not to use high seats or luxurious beds.
The name of Surata’s buddhafield after he becomes awakened.
Refers to the five fundamental precepts of abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and consuming intoxicants.
In this text, the five degenerations are: (1) the degeneration of time, (2) the degeneration of sentient beings, (3) the degeneration of place, (4) the degeneration of lifespan, and (5) the degeneration of mental afflictions. This differs from other presentations of this list in which the degeneration of views replaces the degeneration of place.
In this sūtra, these are taught as conviction, faith, regret, and reverence—whoever possesses these four will clearly see the Tathāgata.
Generosity, kind talk, meaningful actions, and practicing what one preaches.
Viewing what is impermanent to be permanent, viewing what brings suffering to be pleasurable, viewing what is tainted to be pure, and viewing what is non-self to be self.
Monks, nuns, and male and female lay practitioners.
A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”
A collection of texts comprising a section of the Kangyur as well as of the Chinese Buddhist canon.
The paradise of Indra on the summit of Sumeru where there are thirty-three leading deities, hence the name “Heaven of the Thirty-Three.” The second (counting from the lowest) of the six paradises in the desire realm.
A Vedic god who eventually emerged as one of the most important in the Vedic pantheon. Indra retains his role as the “Lord of the Gods” in Buddhist literature, where he is often referred to by the name Śakra.
A divine river whose gold is believed to be especially fine.
The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.
Prince who sold a piece of land in Śrāvastī to the householder Anāthapiṇḍada, who built a monastery there and offered it to the Buddha.
An ancient kingdom, northwest of Magadha, abutting Kāśi, whose capital was Śrāvastī. During the Buddha’s time it was ruled by Prasenajit. It presently corresponds to an area within Uttar Pradesh.
Though not explicit in this text, this may be a reference to eight stages to liberation (aṣṭavimokṣa; rnam par thar pa brgyad), a series of increasingly subtle states of meditative realization or attainment. There are several presentations of these found in the canonical literature. One of the most common is as follows: (1) One observes form while the mind dwells at the level of the form realm. (2) One observes forms externally while discerning formlessness internally. (3) One dwells in the direct experience of the body’s pleasant aspect. (4) One dwells in the realization of the sphere of infinite space by transcending all conceptions of matter, resistance, and diversity. (5) Transcending the sphere of infinite space, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of infinite consciousness. (6) Transcending the sphere of infinite consciousness, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of nothingness. (7) Transcending the sphere of nothingness, one dwells in the realization of the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception. (8) Transcending the sphere of neither perception and nonperception, one dwells in the realization of the cessation of conception and feeling.
The name Surata is known by after he becomes enlightened.
A class of beings related to the demon Māra or a term for the demon Māra himself. Māra and the māras are portrayed as the primary adversaries and tempters of people who vow to take up the religious life, and māras can be understood as a class of demonic beings responsible for perpetuating the illusion that keeps beings bound to the world and worldly attachments and the mental states those beings elicit.
Māra, literally “death” or “maker of death,” is the name of the deva who tried to prevent the Buddha from achieving awakening, the name given to the class of beings he leads, and also an impersonal term for the destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra:
(1) As a deva, Māra is said to be the principal deity in the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (paranirmitavaśavartin), the highest paradise in the desire realm. He famously attempted to prevent the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi tree—see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.1—and later sought many times to thwart the Buddha’s activity. In the sūtras, he often also creates obstacles to the progress of śrāvakas and bodhisattvas. (2) The devas ruled over by Māra are collectively called mārakāyika or mārakāyikadevatā, the “deities of Māra’s family or class.” In general, these māras too do not wish any being to escape from saṃsāra, but can also change their ways and even end up developing faith in the Buddha, as exemplified by Sārthavāha; see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14 and 21.43. (3) The term māra can also be understood as personifying four defects that prevent awakening, called (i) the divine māra (devaputramāra), which is the distraction of pleasures; (ii) the māra of Death (mṛtyumāra), which is having one’s life interrupted; (iii) the māra of the aggregates (skandhamāra), which is identifying with the five aggregates; and (iv) the māra of the afflictions (kleśamāra), which is being under the sway of the negative emotions of desire, hatred, and ignorance.
A class of beings related to the demon Māra or a term for the demon Māra himself. Māra and the māras are portrayed as the primary adversaries and tempters of people who vow to take up the religious life, and māras can be understood as a class of demonic beings responsible for perpetuating the illusion that keeps beings bound to the world and worldly attachments and the mental states those beings elicit.
Māra, literally “death” or “maker of death,” is the name of the deva who tried to prevent the Buddha from achieving awakening, the name given to the class of beings he leads, and also an impersonal term for the destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra:
(1) As a deva, Māra is said to be the principal deity in the Heaven of Making Use of Others’ Emanations (paranirmitavaśavartin), the highest paradise in the desire realm. He famously attempted to prevent the Buddha’s awakening under the Bodhi tree—see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.1—and later sought many times to thwart the Buddha’s activity. In the sūtras, he often also creates obstacles to the progress of śrāvakas and bodhisattvas. (2) The devas ruled over by Māra are collectively called mārakāyika or mārakāyikadevatā, the “deities of Māra’s family or class.” In general, these māras too do not wish any being to escape from saṃsāra, but can also change their ways and even end up developing faith in the Buddha, as exemplified by Sārthavāha; see The Play in Full (Toh 95), 21.14 and 21.43. (3) The term māra can also be understood as personifying four defects that prevent awakening, called (i) the divine māra (devaputramāra), which is the distraction of pleasures; (ii) the māra of Death (mṛtyumāra), which is having one’s life interrupted; (iii) the māra of the aggregates (skandhamāra), which is identifying with the five aggregates; and (iv) the māra of the afflictions (kleśamāra), which is being under the sway of the negative emotions of desire, hatred, and ignorance.
A class of nonhuman beings who live in subterranean aquatic environments, where they guard wealth and sometimes also teachings. Nāgas are associated with serpents and have a snakelike appearance. In Buddhist art and in written accounts, they are regularly portrayed as half human and half snake, and they are also said to have the ability to change into human form. Some nāgas are Dharma protectors, but they can also bring retribution if they are disturbed. They may likewise fight one another, wage war, and destroy the lands of others by causing lightning, hail, and flooding.
A certain young gandharva allied with the god Śakra.
A female member of a class of nonhuman beings traditionally associated with the wild, remote places of the earth. They are considered particularly violent and are known to devour flesh.
King of the country of Kośala, he reigned in the city of Śrāvastī. In this sūtra, Surata humbles him and then becomes one of his teachers. See also i.7.
See also “Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park.”
One of the first Buddhist monasteries, located in a park outside Śrāvastī, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kośala in northern India. This park was originally owned by Prince Jeta, hence the name Jetavana, meaning Jeta’s grove. The wealthy merchant Anāthapiṇḍada, wishing to offer it to the Buddha, sought to buy it from him, but the prince, not wishing to sell, said he would only do so if Anāthapiṇḍada covered the entire property with gold coins. Anāthapiṇḍada agreed, and managed to cover all of the park except the entrance, hence the name Anāthapiṇḍadasyārāmaḥ, meaning Anāthapiṇḍada’s park. The place is usually referred to in the sūtras as “Jetavana, Anāthapiṇḍada’s park,” and according to the Saṃghabhedavastu the Buddha used Prince Jeta’s name in first place because that was Prince Jeta’s own unspoken wish while Anāthapiṇḍada was offering the park. Inspired by the occasion and the Buddha’s use of his name, Prince Jeta then offered the rest of the property and had an entrance gate built. The Buddha specifically instructed those who recite the sūtras to use Prince Jeta’s name in first place to commemorate the mutual effort of both benefactors.
Anāthapiṇḍada built residences for the monks, to house them during the monsoon season, thus creating the first Buddhist monastery. It was one of the Buddha’s main residences, where he spent around nineteen rainy season retreats, and it was therefore the setting for many of the Buddha’s discourses and events. According to the travel accounts of Chinese monks, it was still in use as a Buddhist monastery in the early fifth century ᴄᴇ, but by the sixth century it had been reduced to ruins.
Various unwholesome mental states that lead to continued suffering and existence.
A female member of a class of Indic spirit deities generally considered malevolent and demonic.
A goddess typically understood to be the wife of Indra/Śakra. In this text, it refers to a female asura who attempts to seduce Surata and later becomes one of his attendants.
This universe of ours, or the trichiliocosm (but sometimes referring to just this world system of four continents), presided over by Brahmā. The term is variously interpreted as meaning the world of suffering, of endurance, of fearlessness, or of concomitance (of karmic cause and effect).
Another name for Indra, a Vedic god who eventually emerged as one of the most important in the Vedic pantheon. Indra retains his role as the “Lord of the Gods” in Buddhist literature, where he is often referred to by the name Śakra.
An epithet for the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama: he was a muni (“sage”) from the Śākya clan. He is counted as the fourth of the first four buddhas of the present Good Eon, the other three being Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa. He will be followed by Maitreya, the next buddha in this eon.
In Sanskrit, “Lion of the Śākyas,” an epithet for the Buddha.
The sense spheres are a collective list of the six sense objects (forms, sounds, odors, tastes, textures, mental phenomena) with their respective senses (eye, ear, nose, tongue, tactile sense, and mind) totaling twelve and indicating their interdependence. In this sūtra, they are equated to an “empty city.” This most likely denotes the fact that there is no self independent of the interaction of these or perceiver independent of the process of perception.
The Sanskrit term śrāvaka, and the Tibetan nyan thos, both derived from the verb “to hear,” are usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard to others.” Primarily this refers to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat seeking their own liberation and nirvāṇa. They are the practitioners of the first turning of the wheel of the Dharma on the four noble truths, who realize the suffering inherent in saṃsāra and focus on understanding that there is no independent self. By conquering afflicted mental states (kleśa), they liberate themselves, attaining first the stage of stream enterers at the path of seeing, followed by the stage of once-returners who will be reborn only one more time, and then the stage of non-returners who will no longer be reborn into the desire realm. The final goal is to become an arhat. These four stages are also known as the “four results of spiritual practice.”
The vehicle comprising the teaching of the śrāvakas, the disciples or “Hearers” who heard the teachings from the Buddha. According to Mahāyāna sources, this is one of the two constitutents (along with the Pratyekabuddhayāna) of the so-called “Lesser Vehicle” (Hīnayāna).
Capital city of the kingdom of Kośala, ruled by one of the Buddha’s royal patrons, King Prasenajit, where the Buddha often dwelt in the Jetavana grove, the site of many Mahāyāna sūtras.
des pas zhus pa (Surataparipṛcchā). Toh 71, Degé Kangyur vol. 43 (dkon brtsegs, ca), folios 181.a–193.b.
des pas zhus pa. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center), 108 volumes. Beijing: Krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House). 2006–9, vol. 43, pp. 511–43.
des pas zhus pa. Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 39 (dkon brtsegs, ca), folios 314.b–334.a.
bsgom pa’i rim pa mdo kun las btus pa (Bhāvanākramasūtrasamuccaya). Toh 3933, Degé Tengyur vol. 110 (dbu ma, ki), folios 125.b–148.a.
Denkarma (pho brang stod thang ldan [/ lhan] dkar gyi chos ’gyur ro cog gi dkar chag). Degé Tengyur vol. 206 (sna tshogs, jo), folios 294.b–310.a.
Phangthangma (dkar chag ’phang thang ma). Beijing: mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003.
Chang, Garma C. C., ed. “Bodhisattva Surata’s Discourse.” In A Treasury of Mahāyāna Sūtras: Selections from the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra, 243–55. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1983.
Nattier, Jan. “Indian Antecedents of Huayan Thought: New Light from Chinese Sources.” In Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism, edited by Imre Hamar, 109–38. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2007.
Negi, J. S. Tibetan Sanskrit Dictionary. 16 vol. Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 2002.
Pekar Sangpo (pad dkar bzang po). “Le’u nyer bdun pa ’phags pa des pas zhus pa’i mdo.” In mdo sde spyi’i rnam bzhag [Presentation of the sūtras in the Kangyur], edited by mi nyag mgon po, 85–87. Beijing: mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2006.
Surata’s Questions follows Surata, a seemingly poor vagabond endowed with a wealth of ethical virtue. The juxtaposition of Surata’s poverty with the abundance of his moral merits forms a central theme of the sūtra. After being tested by the god Śakra, Surata finds a precious gem that he decides to give to the poorest person in the city. The narrative’s irony ensues when Surata decides that King Prasenajit should receive the gem, since his ethical depravity vitiates his material wealth. The shock of Surata’s decision occasions a valuable lesson on true wealth lying in moral integrity, to which the Buddha himself attests upon his arrival midway through the sūtra. The sūtra concludes with King Prasenajit’s recognition of the error of his ways and the Buddha’s prophecy of Surata’s coming awakening.
Translated, edited, and introduced by ErdeneBaatar Erdene-Ochir, Jed Forman, and Michael Ium, members of the UCSB Buddhist Studies Translation Group 2. The translation team would like to acknowledge their indebtedness to Professor José Cabezón for his ongoing support. We would also like to thank all of our teachers. Sarvamaṅgalam!
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Surata’s Questions, the twenty-seventh sūtra in the Heap of Jewels section of the Kangyur, displays many of the common tropes of Mahāyāna literature, including the Buddha’s unimaginably vast retinue, his performance of miracles, such as lights emanating from his body, and the conversion of a previously stubborn interlocutor. Also typical of Mahāyāna sūtras, the main protagonist is the eponymous figure of the sūtra, in lieu of the Buddha. Surata’s Questions thus mainly focuses on the story of Surata in a narrative that can be conceptualized in six movements.
First, Surata, identified simply as a “poor city-dweller,” is tested by the god Śakra in Śrāvastī, the city where the Buddha himself happens to be residing. With his divine eye, Śakra perceives Surata to be of impeccable moral character and so decides to determine the limits of his resolve. Śakra magically creates several scenarios to tempt Surata to succumb to a desire for power, wealth, and sexual gratification. But being inveterately moral and without desire, Surata resists each temptation, and responds to them in eloquent verses that highlight the dangers of succumbing to each of them. At this point, Śakra becomes deeply impressed with Surata.
In the second movement, Surata chances upon a precious gem. As a good bodhisattva, he resolves to give the jewel to the poorest person in the city of Śrāvastī, the capital of Kośala. Announcing this publicly, the townsfolk predictably make their case for why they are the poorest and therefore the most deserving of the gem. They are also predictably irritated when Surata declares he has decided to give the gem to the king of Kośala, the famed King Prasenajit. Having gained the crowd’s attention through his audacity, Surata gives a soliloquy on how true wealth lies not in possessions, but in virtue. Surata therefore displays characteristic Mahāyāna skillful means, leveraging the townsfolk’s infatuation with the gem to impart a moral lesson.
With the crowd in tow, Surata delivers the gem to King Prasenajit. It is a backhanded gesture since Surata offers it with the explanation that the king is the poorest person in Śrāvastī. Insulted, the king asks Surata to explain how he could possibly be the poorest. Surata proceeds to describe how the king’s political maneuverings and plundering have made him bereft of moral virtue. His possessions mean nothing without the merit of good deeds, for without this, one is karmically doomed to a miserable future. The king is both moved and angered by Surata’s exposition, and so remains unconvinced, asking if there is anyone who can bear witness to Surata’s testament. This ushers in the fourth movement of the story. Surata says that the Buddha will bear such witness. King Prasenajit therefore requests Surata to invite the Buddha, but Surata counters that there is no need, for, being omniscient, the Buddha will arrive simply through Surata’s mental aspiration. The Buddha suddenly bursts forth from the ground, accompanied by a dizzying number of holy beings. The Buddha attests to Surata’s summation of the king’s wealth, and so Prasenajit is convinced. Surata suggests that the Buddha give a sermon, since it would be a shame for him to come without doing so. After delivering his sermon, the Buddha and his retinue continue their upward trajectory by flying into the sky.
In the fifth movement, Surata delivers a sermon of his own, describing the various meanings of retinue. At the conclusion, the king again feels moved to contrition, offering bolts of cloth to the rag-clad Surata. When Surata rejects the offer, the king requests Surata to at least walk upon the cloth. This is a great show of respect because the feet are considered the most impure part of a person’s body. Thus to request someone to touch an object with their feet suggests that even the lowest part of that person’s body confers immense blessing. Surata then requests that the king give this cloth to the poor townsfolk, demonstrating that Surata did not trade their welfare solely to create an opportunity to teach the Dharma; in lieu of the gem, he was still able to offer them something of value in the end.
The sixth and final movement of the story reads somewhat like an epilogue. Sometime later, King Prasenajit, his family, and his royal attendants accompany Surata to visit the Buddha. Śakra emanates a grand throne for the Buddha and his retinue with the requisite fanfare. Some of the other gods question why Surata, out of place in his ragged garments, is in attendance. Śakra’s earlier respect for Surata resurfaces when he comes to Surata’s defense by admonishing the other gods for their failure to realize how special Surata is. As Śakra foreshadows, the Buddha concludes the sūtra by predicting Surata’s awakening, to the grand jubilation of all.
Surata is a common personal name in Buddhist literature, but no other text appears to mention a renunciate bodhisattva who might be identifiable as the Surata of this text. In contrast, the prominent role in this narrative of Prasenajit, king of Kośala, a well-known figure in Buddhist literature, is noteworthy. It is believed that Prasenajit was born in the same year as Siddhārtha, the future Buddha, and it is possible, given the close geographical and political ties between Kośala and the Śākya kingdom, that Prasenajit and the Śākya prince Siddhārtha moved in the same royal circles and knew each other from an early age. Prasenajit is generally depicted as a dedicated, lifelong patron of the Buddha with an exemplary degree of devotion to him. This devotion is clearly demonstrated in Prasenajit’s most famous deed: his fashioning of a sandalwood image of Śākyamuni—perhaps the earliest record of any image of the Buddha—to soothe his longing and devotion when the Buddha was away from Śrāvastī. Prasenajit is also a frequent interlocuter in Buddhist sūtras, presenting the questions to Śākyamuni that elicit his sermons. For his role in Buddhist sūtras and his acts of patronage and devotion, Prasenajit is often held up as the model of Buddhist kingship.
This general depiction of Prasenajit in Buddhist literature makes his role in Surata’s Questions a curious one. Here he is described as a rapacious and maniacal tyrant who steals the wealth of his people and inflicts needless suffering upon them. It is only through Surata’s challenge and the Buddha’s subsequent chastisement that Prasenajit realizes his faults as a king and awakens his devotion to the Buddha and his community. That this narrative stands somewhat at odds with Prasenajit’s general status in Buddhist literature may simply demonstrate the malleability of common Buddhist narratives for the sake of expediency in articulating the ethical or doctrinal message of a given scriptural discourse. Possibly, too, in describing what seems to be his first meeting with the Buddha following the latter’s awakening, the text could be read as indicating that Prasenajit’s views on how best to wield royal power had, prior to that first encounter with Surata’s challenge as a prelude, been fiercer and more autocratic than is suggested in other accounts of his subsequent doings. If this is an account of Prasenajit’s first meeting with the Buddha, however, it should be noted that it is a quite different one from the classic account related in the Saṅghabhedavastu (Toh 1 chapter 17), in its standalone derivative the Abhiniṣkramanasūtra (Toh 301), and in the Pali Dahara-sutta (SN 3.1). This unique perspective on the figure of Prasenajit thus counts among the numerous ways Surata’s Questions makes a significant contribution to our understanding of Buddhist literature.
In addition to the Tibetan translation found in various Kangyurs, three Chinese translations of the Surataparipṛcchā are presently available. Of the two earlier versions, the first, translated by Bai Yan in the mid-third century, is titled 佛說須賴經 (Fo shuo xulai jing, Taishō 328), and the second, translated by Zhi Shilun in 373
Surata’s Questions is only mentioned by name in one work of the Tengyur, an anthology titled Compendium of Sūtras on the Steps of Meditation (Bhāvanākramasūtrasamuccaya, bsgom pa’i rim pa mdo kun las btus pa). The work cites two interesting parts of the sūtra, both of which are in verse. The first reads:
- When the seeds are bitter,
- They will bear bitter fruit.
- When the seeds are sweet,
- They will bear sweet fruit.
- Applying this example,
- A wise person understands
- The bitterness of the ripening of sins
- And the sweetness of the fruits of white deeds. [F.130.b]
This verse is given in the midst of several other citations describing the importance of keeping one’s ethics in order to escape the suffering of saṃsāra. The second selection is cited as an example of how to go to refuge to the Three Jewels—the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha:
- You delight in eliminating desire, hatred, and delusion;
- Your mind is peaceful and impartial, yet compassionate;
- You speak truthfully and know the ultimate;
- Thus, I pay homage to you, who liberates all three realms! [F.137.b]
The context of these passages becomes clear in the sūtra translated below. However, the decision to isolate these passages and place them in a mélange of other such passages from other sūtras suggests they may have been recognized as standalone aphorisms that were well-known in the compiler’s contemporary Buddhist community and worthy of record.
There is no surviving Sanskrit witness to Surata’s Questions. It was translated into Tibetan by a group of translators, including the famous translator Bandé Yeshé Dé, no later than the early ninth century
Homage to all the buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time. The Bhagavān was dwelling in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park, together with a great monastic assembly of one thousand two hundred and fifty monks and with thirty-two thousand bodhisattvas. He was venerated, revered, honored, and worshiped by the fourfold community, as well as by the king, ministers, townsfolk, and citizens.
At that time in Śrāvastī there lived a poor city-dweller named Surata. He had unshakable faith in the Buddha, unshakable faith in the Dharma, and unshakable faith in the Saṅgha. He held to the five basic precepts and adhered to the ten virtuous actions. Being kind, he was equanimous toward all sentient beings. Being compassionate, he was indefatigable. Being joyful, he reveled in and longed for the bliss of Dharma. Being impartial, he was unmoved by happiness or suffering. He was dedicated to the pursuit of unsurpassable, perfect awakening, and was perfected through previous practice. Through skillful means, he brought sentient beings to full maturity, despite being considered poor.
Śakra, lord of the gods, beheld the poor city-dweller Surata with his divine eye, whose clarity surpasses any human’s. Śakra perceived that he had few desires, that he was content, that he had ethical discipline and was morally upright, that his mind was unperturbed, that he always wore a smile, that he did not judge others for their mistakes, that he cared for the mental welfare of all sentient beings, that he was not covetous, that he acted mindfully, that he was content, easily fulfilled, and easily sated, that he had good intentions, that he was not deceitful, that he was not conceited, that he was eloquent, that he was respectful, that he continually observed the eight precepts, that he carried a bowl made of leaves in his hands, that he slept on a grass mat, that he wore tattered garments, that he would not take things he chanced upon, that he would share his food no matter its quality, that he had regard for the Tathāgata at all times, that he wanted to hear the Dharma, that he was inspired by various parables, and that when sentient beings saw him, they were happy.
Seeing this, Śakra, lord of the gods, thought to himself, “Let me examine whether this poor city-dweller’s moral resolve is firm.” He then emanated a crowd of people who abused and rebuked the poor city-dweller Surata with offensive words. Surata patiently tolerated their threats, even as they brandished clumps of earth, sticks, and blades; he was neither irritated, nor gave rise to malicious thoughts.
Śakra, lord of the gods, then emanated another crowd in front of Surata. With kind words, they said to him, “We would like to help you. If you wish, we will exterminate all the enemies who threaten you.”
“Friends, don’t say such things!” replied Surata. “Even if those people were to cut my body into a hundred pieces, I still would not think badly of them. Friends, in the various worlds, there are two types of beings, the virtuous and the nonvirtuous. The virtuous ones have happy rebirths, and the nonvirtuous ones have miserable rebirths. Therefore, since I don’t even want to get angry with them, how could I harm them physically?”
Surata then spoke these verses:
Then, on another occasion, Śakra, lord of the gods, showed Surata a heap of jewels and gold and said, “Surata, use these to make donations and make merit! Get some clothes and jewelry! Why should you be poor and wretched?”
“Friends,” said Surata, “because I performed evil deeds in the past toward sentient beings with my body, speech, and mind, I am now considered poor. Therefore, I don’t want to take what is not given to me.”
“Surata, now is the time to be living happily!” Śakra insisted. “Why are you thinking of the world beyond?”
“Friend,” replied Surata, “living for the sake of this life is the way of childish beings. The wise live for the sake of their next life. Those who are possessed by desire, possessed by hatred, possessed by delusion, and possessed by lust take what is not given to them, whereas the wise are not covetous. Those who live for the sake of hoarding take what is not given to them, whereas the wise do not hoard. Those who hold concepts of ‘mine’ and who are possessive take what is not given to them, whereas the wise do not hold concepts of ‘mine’ and are not possessive. Those who focus on their bodies and vitality take what is not given to them, whereas the wise do not focus on their bodies and vitality. Those who are not satisfied and not contented take what is not given to them, whereas the wise know satisfaction and contentment. Those who live impurely take what is not given to them, whereas the wise live purely. Those who do not have insight into karma take what is not given to them, whereas the wise have insight into karma. Those who live for the sake of harming others take what is not given to them, whereas the wise live for the sake of not harming others. Those who do not have loving attitudes take what is not given to them, whereas the wise have loving attitudes. Those whose minds are polluted by the four wrong views take what is not given to them, whereas the minds of the wise are not wrong. Moreover, may the poor heed these verses!
Then, on another occasion, Śakra, lord of the gods, emanated another person who brought a pile of gold to Surata and said, “Hey Surata, I’ve brought this gold for you. I’m in the midst of a dispute with someone and only you can act as my witness. You need to be my witness!”
Surata replied, “Give it up, my friend! Don’t say that! I don’t want to lie. My friend, lying would deceive not only myself and others, but the noble ones as well. Lying ruins one’s reputation. Lying makes one untrustworthy and unpleasant. Lying makes one despicable. Lying torments one’s mind. My friend, lying gives one bad breath. Lying makes one’s body feeble. Lying makes one despised by the gods. My friend, lying steals away one’s roots of virtue. Lying dulls one’s memory. Lying blocks one’s path to fortunate rebirths. My friend, noble ones do not engage in lying. Lying makes one’s speech distasteful among truthful people. Lying is criticized by the wise. Lying is the root of all sins. Lying severs the fulfillment of one’s religious observances at the root. Lying is the root of all miserable rebirths.”
The poor city-dweller Surata then spoke these verses:
Unable to get Surata to lie, the person emanated by Śakra went away.
Then Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the goddess Sunlight and the asura Śacī,
“You two go test whether this practitioner of religious observances and austerities indulges in sensual gratification or if he truly doesn’t strive for pleasure!”
At daybreak, the asura Śacī and the goddess Sunlight went to where Surata was staying and spoke to him sweetly, “Wake up, Surata! We’re here to serve you. Surata, behold our perfect bodies! Behold the curves, luster, and shapeliness of our bodies. Behold our bodies, anointed with unguents and adorned with ornaments, garments, and accessories! Behold how we exude the bloom of youth! Surata, behold our well-formed, perfect bodies, the kind that will please you.”
Seeing them, Surata said, “You two serve those in hell, the realms of animals, and Yama’s realm, but not those in the god or human realms. I see your bodies as illusory and dream-like. I see your bodies as being like foam, bubbles, and mirages. I see your bodies, anointed with sandalwood ointment, as covered in soggy flesh. I see your ornaments and garments as illusions that deceive the eyes. I see your youthfulness as impermanent and subject to change. Since I see all that to be meritless, I feel no attraction to you. You two serve those whose minds are like monkeys and those whose minds are like women’s, but you can’t serve those whose minds are protected by mindfulness.
“Sisters, those who rely on desire are ugly. Those who rely on desire smell foul. Those who rely on desire are rotten. Those who rely on desire suffer greatly. Those who rely on desire are barred from all happiness. Those who rely on desire will frequent the hells, animal realms, and Yama’s realm. Those who rely on desire will remain in miserable rebirths. Those who rely on desire will resort to fighting, disputing, and quarreling. Those who rely on desire will have to live in disharmony and become trapped. Those who rely on desire develop misconceptions. Those who rely on desire will maintain their propensities for continued existence. Those who rely on desire are very deluded, completely deluded, and thoroughly deluded. Those who rely on desire are fully oppressed, very oppressed, and extremely oppressed. Those who rely on desire are thoroughly tormented, very tormented, and entirely tormented. Those who rely on desire pursue nonvirtue and degrade their virtue. Those who rely on desire plant the roots of nonvirtue. Those who rely on desire are completely trapped in an impenetrable fog of nonvirtue. Those who rely on desire are intimate with rākṣasīs, with those who have ugly bodies, and with piśācīs. Those who rely on desire will have relations with cattle, donkeys, dogs, pigs, camels, elephants, horses, sheep, and foxes. Those who rely on desire will rely on degenerate people. Those who rely on desire will rely on people who entirely forsake discipline, study, and acts of generosity. Those who rely on desire forsake religious observances and ascetic practices. Those who rely on desire are completely careless. Those who rely on desire greatly increase their mental afflictions. Those who rely on desire create many obstacles.”
The poor city-dweller Surata then spoke these verses:
The asura Śacī and the goddess Sunlight then went back to Śakra, lord of the gods, and spoke this verse:
Thereupon Śakra, lord of the gods, came to the poor city-dweller Surata and spoke this verse:
Surata responded:
Śakra said:
On another occasion, the poor city-dweller Surata found a priceless and precious gem. He thought to himself, “Assuredly, I should give this precious gem, the finest in Jambudvīpa, to the poorest person in Śrāvastī.” He went to the city and announced, “I will give this gem to the poorest among you.”
A crowd of neglected poor people gathered there and called out, “We are poor, so give it to us!”
“You are not poor!” countered Surata. “But there is someone else in Śrāvastī who is exceedingly poor, so I will give it to that person.”
The crowd asked, “Who?”
“It is King Prasenajit,” replied Surata.
“Don’t say that!” the crowd retorted. “King Prasenajit is rich and wealthy with vast resources, whereas we are poor and neglected.”
Surata responded:
Then the poor city-dweller Surata, carrying the precious gem and accompanied by the crowd, went to where King Prasenajit was administering his royal duties.
At that time, as a penalty for some minor infractions, King Prasenajit had seized the possessions of some five hundred eminent merchants and householders who were from good families.
The poor city-dweller Surata offered the king the precious gem and said, “Great king, I’ve found this priceless and precious gem whose worth matches that of all Jambudvīpa, and I thought that I would give it to the poorest person in Śrāvastī. I think you are the poorest among everyone here. Therefore, O King, please accept it!”
Thereupon King Prasenajit became nervous and embarrassed, and he asked the poor city-dweller Surata, “Surata, how am I even poorer than you?”
Surata replied, “O Your Majesty, it is true. You are poorer than me.”
“In what way am I poor?” asked the king.
Surata then spoke these verses:
King Prasenajit became agitated and demanded of the poor city-dweller Surata, “Surata, who could attest, on your behalf, that I am poor and you are rich?”
“Your Majesty,” replied Surata, “haven’t you heard that the thus-gone, worthy, completely perfect Buddha is dwelling here in Śrāvastī?”
“I’ve heard this, but have yet to see him,” said the king.
“Your Majesty, he has become the eye for all beings, including the gods!” said Surata. “He has become the authority. He could attest on my behalf.”
“Go invite the Tathāgata and I will hear what he has to say,” said the king.
Surata replied:
Thereupon the poor city-dweller Surata paid homage by touching his head to the Bhagavān’s feet and circumambulated him seven times. Then he said, “Bhagavān, while wandering about Śrāvastī, I found a priceless, precious gem. I decided to give it to the poorest person in Śrāvastī. I determined that King Prasenajit is the poorest, because no matter how much he plunders, he is never satisfied; he seeks riches again and again, yet it is never enough. He is never satisfied with the possessions of others; he harms those already suffering and quickly uproots the happiness of others. He leads the poor to ruin and subjugates the wealthy. He has gone completely mad! Having determined that he is completely bound by the wealth of his kingdom and by his cravings, I offered him the gem but he didn’t accept it. He asked, ‘Who could attest, on your behalf, that I am poor and you are rich?’ Therefore, O Bhagavān—who is impartial to all sentient beings, who never turns away from them, and who is without obstinacy, impurity, and enmity—Bhagavān, please tell us clearly if what I have said is true!”
The Bhagavān then said, “Great king, you think yourself rich based on the resources of your kingdom that you have acquired in this life, such as gold, jewels, pearls, lapis lazuli, conch shells, crystals, corals, gold powder, silver, horses, elephants, chariots, infantry, cavalry, storehouses, and treasuries. Great king, Surata thinks himself rich based on his generosity, discipline, self-restraint, forbearance, gentleness, ethical discipline, religious observances, ascetic practices, conscientiousness, virtuous practices, frugality, kindness, compassion, joy, equanimity, devotion to the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha, faith, ethical discipline, learning, acts of generosity, wisdom, sense of shame, modesty, stability, and vows. Great king, suppose that all the people under your authority became wealthy like you. Even added together, the mound of their collective merit could not match one hundredth the merit that Surata accumulates by walking seven steps with his discipline, learning, religious observance, ascetic practices, and conscientiousness alone. It is incomparable.”
“Bhagavān,” said Prasenajit, “finding people like him, with such vast qualities, living in our land is a great discovery!”
The Bhagavān replied, “Great king, there are many people with these vast qualities in your land.”
King Prasenajit then spoke these verses to Surata:
Surata, a child of the lineage, then made a request of the Bhagavān: “Bhagavān, it is not enough for the great assembly of people gathered here merely to see you. Therefore, Bhagavān, please offer them whatever teachings will make their encounter with the Tathāgata meaningful!”
The Bhagavān replied, “Surata, if a child of the lineage possesses these four dharmas, he or she will clearly see the Tathāgata. What are the four? Conviction, faith, regret, and reverence are the four. Whoever possesses these four will clearly see the Tathāgata.
“There is another set of four: generating the intention for unsurpassable, perfect awakening while gazing at the form body of the Tathāgata and wishing, ‘May I become like him’; generating the special and pure intention because the Tathāgata is trustworthy; generating the intention to teach the Dharma to all sentient beings until they are completely liberated; and generating the intention to uphold the supreme Dharma so that the continuity of the lineage of the Three Jewels is maintained. Whoever possesses these four will clearly see the Tathāgata.
“There is still another set of four: seeing form as detached; seeing sensations, perceptions, formations, and consciousnesses as detached; seeing the four elements as space-like; and seeing the sense spheres to be like empty cities. Whoever possesses these four will clearly see the Tathāgata.
Surata’s Questions follows Surata, a seemingly poor vagabond endowed with a wealth of ethical virtue. The juxtaposition of Surata’s poverty with the abundance of his moral merits forms a central theme of the sūtra. After being tested by the god Śakra, Surata finds a precious gem that he decides to give to the poorest person in the city. The narrative’s irony ensues when Surata decides that King Prasenajit should receive the gem, since his ethical depravity vitiates his material wealth. The shock of Surata’s decision occasions a valuable lesson on true wealth lying in moral integrity, to which the Buddha himself attests upon his arrival midway through the sūtra. The sūtra concludes with King Prasenajit’s recognition of the error of his ways and the Buddha’s prophecy of Surata’s coming awakening.
Translated, edited, and introduced by ErdeneBaatar Erdene-Ochir, Jed Forman, and Michael Ium, members of the UCSB Buddhist Studies Translation Group 2. The translation team would like to acknowledge their indebtedness to Professor José Cabezón for his ongoing support. We would also like to thank all of our teachers. Sarvamaṅgalam!
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Surata’s Questions, the twenty-seventh sūtra in the Heap of Jewels section of the Kangyur, displays many of the common tropes of Mahāyāna literature, including the Buddha’s unimaginably vast retinue, his performance of miracles, such as lights emanating from his body, and the conversion of a previously stubborn interlocutor. Also typical of Mahāyāna sūtras, the main protagonist is the eponymous figure of the sūtra, in lieu of the Buddha. Surata’s Questions thus mainly focuses on the story of Surata in a narrative that can be conceptualized in six movements.
First, Surata, identified simply as a “poor city-dweller,” is tested by the god Śakra in Śrāvastī, the city where the Buddha himself happens to be residing. With his divine eye, Śakra perceives Surata to be of impeccable moral character and so decides to determine the limits of his resolve. Śakra magically creates several scenarios to tempt Surata to succumb to a desire for power, wealth, and sexual gratification. But being inveterately moral and without desire, Surata resists each temptation, and responds to them in eloquent verses that highlight the dangers of succumbing to each of them. At this point, Śakra becomes deeply impressed with Surata.
In the second movement, Surata chances upon a precious gem. As a good bodhisattva, he resolves to give the jewel to the poorest person in the city of Śrāvastī, the capital of Kośala. Announcing this publicly, the townsfolk predictably make their case for why they are the poorest and therefore the most deserving of the gem. They are also predictably irritated when Surata declares he has decided to give the gem to the king of Kośala, the famed King Prasenajit. Having gained the crowd’s attention through his audacity, Surata gives a soliloquy on how true wealth lies not in possessions, but in virtue. Surata therefore displays characteristic Mahāyāna skillful means, leveraging the townsfolk’s infatuation with the gem to impart a moral lesson.
With the crowd in tow, Surata delivers the gem to King Prasenajit. It is a backhanded gesture since Surata offers it with the explanation that the king is the poorest person in Śrāvastī. Insulted, the king asks Surata to explain how he could possibly be the poorest. Surata proceeds to describe how the king’s political maneuverings and plundering have made him bereft of moral virtue. His possessions mean nothing without the merit of good deeds, for without this, one is karmically doomed to a miserable future. The king is both moved and angered by Surata’s exposition, and so remains unconvinced, asking if there is anyone who can bear witness to Surata’s testament. This ushers in the fourth movement of the story. Surata says that the Buddha will bear such witness. King Prasenajit therefore requests Surata to invite the Buddha, but Surata counters that there is no need, for, being omniscient, the Buddha will arrive simply through Surata’s mental aspiration. The Buddha suddenly bursts forth from the ground, accompanied by a dizzying number of holy beings. The Buddha attests to Surata’s summation of the king’s wealth, and so Prasenajit is convinced. Surata suggests that the Buddha give a sermon, since it would be a shame for him to come without doing so. After delivering his sermon, the Buddha and his retinue continue their upward trajectory by flying into the sky.
In the fifth movement, Surata delivers a sermon of his own, describing the various meanings of retinue. At the conclusion, the king again feels moved to contrition, offering bolts of cloth to the rag-clad Surata. When Surata rejects the offer, the king requests Surata to at least walk upon the cloth. This is a great show of respect because the feet are considered the most impure part of a person’s body. Thus to request someone to touch an object with their feet suggests that even the lowest part of that person’s body confers immense blessing. Surata then requests that the king give this cloth to the poor townsfolk, demonstrating that Surata did not trade their welfare solely to create an opportunity to teach the Dharma; in lieu of the gem, he was still able to offer them something of value in the end.
The sixth and final movement of the story reads somewhat like an epilogue. Sometime later, King Prasenajit, his family, and his royal attendants accompany Surata to visit the Buddha. Śakra emanates a grand throne for the Buddha and his retinue with the requisite fanfare. Some of the other gods question why Surata, out of place in his ragged garments, is in attendance. Śakra’s earlier respect for Surata resurfaces when he comes to Surata’s defense by admonishing the other gods for their failure to realize how special Surata is. As Śakra foreshadows, the Buddha concludes the sūtra by predicting Surata’s awakening, to the grand jubilation of all.
Surata is a common personal name in Buddhist literature, but no other text appears to mention a renunciate bodhisattva who might be identifiable as the Surata of this text. In contrast, the prominent role in this narrative of Prasenajit, king of Kośala, a well-known figure in Buddhist literature, is noteworthy. It is believed that Prasenajit was born in the same year as Siddhārtha, the future Buddha, and it is possible, given the close geographical and political ties between Kośala and the Śākya kingdom, that Prasenajit and the Śākya prince Siddhārtha moved in the same royal circles and knew each other from an early age. Prasenajit is generally depicted as a dedicated, lifelong patron of the Buddha with an exemplary degree of devotion to him. This devotion is clearly demonstrated in Prasenajit’s most famous deed: his fashioning of a sandalwood image of Śākyamuni—perhaps the earliest record of any image of the Buddha—to soothe his longing and devotion when the Buddha was away from Śrāvastī. Prasenajit is also a frequent interlocuter in Buddhist sūtras, presenting the questions to Śākyamuni that elicit his sermons. For his role in Buddhist sūtras and his acts of patronage and devotion, Prasenajit is often held up as the model of Buddhist kingship.
This general depiction of Prasenajit in Buddhist literature makes his role in Surata’s Questions a curious one. Here he is described as a rapacious and maniacal tyrant who steals the wealth of his people and inflicts needless suffering upon them. It is only through Surata’s challenge and the Buddha’s subsequent chastisement that Prasenajit realizes his faults as a king and awakens his devotion to the Buddha and his community. That this narrative stands somewhat at odds with Prasenajit’s general status in Buddhist literature may simply demonstrate the malleability of common Buddhist narratives for the sake of expediency in articulating the ethical or doctrinal message of a given scriptural discourse. Possibly, too, in describing what seems to be his first meeting with the Buddha following the latter’s awakening, the text could be read as indicating that Prasenajit’s views on how best to wield royal power had, prior to that first encounter with Surata’s challenge as a prelude, been fiercer and more autocratic than is suggested in other accounts of his subsequent doings. If this is an account of Prasenajit’s first meeting with the Buddha, however, it should be noted that it is a quite different one from the classic account related in the Saṅghabhedavastu (Toh 1 chapter 17), in its standalone derivative the Abhiniṣkramanasūtra (Toh 301), and in the Pali Dahara-sutta (SN 3.1). This unique perspective on the figure of Prasenajit thus counts among the numerous ways Surata’s Questions makes a significant contribution to our understanding of Buddhist literature.
In addition to the Tibetan translation found in various Kangyurs, three Chinese translations of the Surataparipṛcchā are presently available. Of the two earlier versions, the first, translated by Bai Yan in the mid-third century, is titled 佛說須賴經 (Fo shuo xulai jing, Taishō 328), and the second, translated by Zhi Shilun in 373
Surata’s Questions is only mentioned by name in one work of the Tengyur, an anthology titled Compendium of Sūtras on the Steps of Meditation (Bhāvanākramasūtrasamuccaya, bsgom pa’i rim pa mdo kun las btus pa). The work cites two interesting parts of the sūtra, both of which are in verse. The first reads:
- When the seeds are bitter,
- They will bear bitter fruit.
- When the seeds are sweet,
- They will bear sweet fruit.
- Applying this example,
- A wise person understands
- The bitterness of the ripening of sins
- And the sweetness of the fruits of white deeds. [F.130.b]
This verse is given in the midst of several other citations describing the importance of keeping one’s ethics in order to escape the suffering of saṃsāra. The second selection is cited as an example of how to go to refuge to the Three Jewels—the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha:
- You delight in eliminating desire, hatred, and delusion;
- Your mind is peaceful and impartial, yet compassionate;
- You speak truthfully and know the ultimate;
- Thus, I pay homage to you, who liberates all three realms! [F.137.b]
The context of these passages becomes clear in the sūtra translated below. However, the decision to isolate these passages and place them in a mélange of other such passages from other sūtras suggests they may have been recognized as standalone aphorisms that were well-known in the compiler’s contemporary Buddhist community and worthy of record.
There is no surviving Sanskrit witness to Surata’s Questions. It was translated into Tibetan by a group of translators, including the famous translator Bandé Yeshé Dé, no later than the early ninth century
Homage to all the buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time. The Bhagavān was dwelling in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park, together with a great monastic assembly of one thousand two hundred and fifty monks and with thirty-two thousand bodhisattvas. He was venerated, revered, honored, and worshiped by the fourfold community, as well as by the king, ministers, townsfolk, and citizens.
At that time in Śrāvastī there lived a poor city-dweller named Surata. He had unshakable faith in the Buddha, unshakable faith in the Dharma, and unshakable faith in the Saṅgha. He held to the five basic precepts and adhered to the ten virtuous actions. Being kind, he was equanimous toward all sentient beings. Being compassionate, he was indefatigable. Being joyful, he reveled in and longed for the bliss of Dharma. Being impartial, he was unmoved by happiness or suffering. He was dedicated to the pursuit of unsurpassable, perfect awakening, and was perfected through previous practice. Through skillful means, he brought sentient beings to full maturity, despite being considered poor.
Śakra, lord of the gods, beheld the poor city-dweller Surata with his divine eye, whose clarity surpasses any human’s. Śakra perceived that he had few desires, that he was content, that he had ethical discipline and was morally upright, that his mind was unperturbed, that he always wore a smile, that he did not judge others for their mistakes, that he cared for the mental welfare of all sentient beings, that he was not covetous, that he acted mindfully, that he was content, easily fulfilled, and easily sated, that he had good intentions, that he was not deceitful, that he was not conceited, that he was eloquent, that he was respectful, that he continually observed the eight precepts, that he carried a bowl made of leaves in his hands, that he slept on a grass mat, that he wore tattered garments, that he would not take things he chanced upon, that he would share his food no matter its quality, that he had regard for the Tathāgata at all times, that he wanted to hear the Dharma, that he was inspired by various parables, and that when sentient beings saw him, they were happy.
Seeing this, Śakra, lord of the gods, thought to himself, “Let me examine whether this poor city-dweller’s moral resolve is firm.” He then emanated a crowd of people who abused and rebuked the poor city-dweller Surata with offensive words. Surata patiently tolerated their threats, even as they brandished clumps of earth, sticks, and blades; he was neither irritated, nor gave rise to malicious thoughts.
Śakra, lord of the gods, then emanated another crowd in front of Surata. With kind words, they said to him, “We would like to help you. If you wish, we will exterminate all the enemies who threaten you.”
“Friends, don’t say such things!” replied Surata. “Even if those people were to cut my body into a hundred pieces, I still would not think badly of them. Friends, in the various worlds, there are two types of beings, the virtuous and the nonvirtuous. The virtuous ones have happy rebirths, and the nonvirtuous ones have miserable rebirths. Therefore, since I don’t even want to get angry with them, how could I harm them physically?”
Surata then spoke these verses:
Then, on another occasion, Śakra, lord of the gods, showed Surata a heap of jewels and gold and said, “Surata, use these to make donations and make merit! Get some clothes and jewelry! Why should you be poor and wretched?”
“Friends,” said Surata, “because I performed evil deeds in the past toward sentient beings with my body, speech, and mind, I am now considered poor. Therefore, I don’t want to take what is not given to me.”
“Surata, now is the time to be living happily!” Śakra insisted. “Why are you thinking of the world beyond?”
“Friend,” replied Surata, “living for the sake of this life is the way of childish beings. The wise live for the sake of their next life. Those who are possessed by desire, possessed by hatred, possessed by delusion, and possessed by lust take what is not given to them, whereas the wise are not covetous. Those who live for the sake of hoarding take what is not given to them, whereas the wise do not hoard. Those who hold concepts of ‘mine’ and who are possessive take what is not given to them, whereas the wise do not hold concepts of ‘mine’ and are not possessive. Those who focus on their bodies and vitality take what is not given to them, whereas the wise do not focus on their bodies and vitality. Those who are not satisfied and not contented take what is not given to them, whereas the wise know satisfaction and contentment. Those who live impurely take what is not given to them, whereas the wise live purely. Those who do not have insight into karma take what is not given to them, whereas the wise have insight into karma. Those who live for the sake of harming others take what is not given to them, whereas the wise live for the sake of not harming others. Those who do not have loving attitudes take what is not given to them, whereas the wise have loving attitudes. Those whose minds are polluted by the four wrong views take what is not given to them, whereas the minds of the wise are not wrong. Moreover, may the poor heed these verses!
Then, on another occasion, Śakra, lord of the gods, emanated another person who brought a pile of gold to Surata and said, “Hey Surata, I’ve brought this gold for you. I’m in the midst of a dispute with someone and only you can act as my witness. You need to be my witness!”
Surata replied, “Give it up, my friend! Don’t say that! I don’t want to lie. My friend, lying would deceive not only myself and others, but the noble ones as well. Lying ruins one’s reputation. Lying makes one untrustworthy and unpleasant. Lying makes one despicable. Lying torments one’s mind. My friend, lying gives one bad breath. Lying makes one’s body feeble. Lying makes one despised by the gods. My friend, lying steals away one’s roots of virtue. Lying dulls one’s memory. Lying blocks one’s path to fortunate rebirths. My friend, noble ones do not engage in lying. Lying makes one’s speech distasteful among truthful people. Lying is criticized by the wise. Lying is the root of all sins. Lying severs the fulfillment of one’s religious observances at the root. Lying is the root of all miserable rebirths.”
The poor city-dweller Surata then spoke these verses:
Unable to get Surata to lie, the person emanated by Śakra went away.
Then Śakra, lord of the gods, said to the goddess Sunlight and the asura Śacī,
“You two go test whether this practitioner of religious observances and austerities indulges in sensual gratification or if he truly doesn’t strive for pleasure!”
At daybreak, the asura Śacī and the goddess Sunlight went to where Surata was staying and spoke to him sweetly, “Wake up, Surata! We’re here to serve you. Surata, behold our perfect bodies! Behold the curves, luster, and shapeliness of our bodies. Behold our bodies, anointed with unguents and adorned with ornaments, garments, and accessories! Behold how we exude the bloom of youth! Surata, behold our well-formed, perfect bodies, the kind that will please you.”
Seeing them, Surata said, “You two serve those in hell, the realms of animals, and Yama’s realm, but not those in the god or human realms. I see your bodies as illusory and dream-like. I see your bodies as being like foam, bubbles, and mirages. I see your bodies, anointed with sandalwood ointment, as covered in soggy flesh. I see your ornaments and garments as illusions that deceive the eyes. I see your youthfulness as impermanent and subject to change. Since I see all that to be meritless, I feel no attraction to you. You two serve those whose minds are like monkeys and those whose minds are like women’s, but you can’t serve those whose minds are protected by mindfulness.
“Sisters, those who rely on desire are ugly. Those who rely on desire smell foul. Those who rely on desire are rotten. Those who rely on desire suffer greatly. Those who rely on desire are barred from all happiness. Those who rely on desire will frequent the hells, animal realms, and Yama’s realm. Those who rely on desire will remain in miserable rebirths. Those who rely on desire will resort to fighting, disputing, and quarreling. Those who rely on desire will have to live in disharmony and become trapped. Those who rely on desire develop misconceptions. Those who rely on desire will maintain their propensities for continued existence. Those who rely on desire are very deluded, completely deluded, and thoroughly deluded. Those who rely on desire are fully oppressed, very oppressed, and extremely oppressed. Those who rely on desire are thoroughly tormented, very tormented, and entirely tormented. Those who rely on desire pursue nonvirtue and degrade their virtue. Those who rely on desire plant the roots of nonvirtue. Those who rely on desire are completely trapped in an impenetrable fog of nonvirtue. Those who rely on desire are intimate with rākṣasīs, with those who have ugly bodies, and with piśācīs. Those who rely on desire will have relations with cattle, donkeys, dogs, pigs, camels, elephants, horses, sheep, and foxes. Those who rely on desire will rely on degenerate people. Those who rely on desire will rely on people who entirely forsake discipline, study, and acts of generosity. Those who rely on desire forsake religious observances and ascetic practices. Those who rely on desire are completely careless. Those who rely on desire greatly increase their mental afflictions. Those who rely on desire create many obstacles.”
The poor city-dweller Surata then spoke these verses:
The asura Śacī and the goddess Sunlight then went back to Śakra, lord of the gods, and spoke this verse:
Thereupon Śakra, lord of the gods, came to the poor city-dweller Surata and spoke this verse:
Surata responded:
Śakra said:
On another occasion, the poor city-dweller Surata found a priceless and precious gem. He thought to himself, “Assuredly, I should give this precious gem, the finest in Jambudvīpa, to the poorest person in Śrāvastī.” He went to the city and announced, “I will give this gem to the poorest among you.”
A crowd of neglected poor people gathered there and called out, “We are poor, so give it to us!”
“You are not poor!” countered Surata. “But there is someone else in Śrāvastī who is exceedingly poor, so I will give it to that person.”
The crowd asked, “Who?”
“It is King Prasenajit,” replied Surata.
“Don’t say that!” the crowd retorted. “King Prasenajit is rich and wealthy with vast resources, whereas we are poor and neglected.”
Surata responded:
Then the poor city-dweller Surata, carrying the precious gem and accompanied by the crowd, went to where King Prasenajit was administering his royal duties.
At that time, as a penalty for some minor infractions, King Prasenajit had seized the possessions of some five hundred eminent merchants and householders who were from good families.
The poor city-dweller Surata offered the king the precious gem and said, “Great king, I’ve found this priceless and precious gem whose worth matches that of all Jambudvīpa, and I thought that I would give it to the poorest person in Śrāvastī. I think you are the poorest among everyone here. Therefore, O King, please accept it!”
Thereupon King Prasenajit became nervous and embarrassed, and he asked the poor city-dweller Surata, “Surata, how am I even poorer than you?”
Surata replied, “O Your Majesty, it is true. You are poorer than me.”
“In what way am I poor?” asked the king.
Surata then spoke these verses:
King Prasenajit became agitated and demanded of the poor city-dweller Surata, “Surata, who could attest, on your behalf, that I am poor and you are rich?”
“Your Majesty,” replied Surata, “haven’t you heard that the thus-gone, worthy, completely perfect Buddha is dwelling here in Śrāvastī?”
“I’ve heard this, but have yet to see him,” said the king.
“Your Majesty, he has become the eye for all beings, including the gods!” said Surata. “He has become the authority. He could attest on my behalf.”
“Go invite the Tathāgata and I will hear what he has to say,” said the king.
Surata replied:
Thereupon the poor city-dweller Surata paid homage by touching his head to the Bhagavān’s feet and circumambulated him seven times. Then he said, “Bhagavān, while wandering about Śrāvastī, I found a priceless, precious gem. I decided to give it to the poorest person in Śrāvastī. I determined that King Prasenajit is the poorest, because no matter how much he plunders, he is never satisfied; he seeks riches again and again, yet it is never enough. He is never satisfied with the possessions of others; he harms those already suffering and quickly uproots the happiness of others. He leads the poor to ruin and subjugates the wealthy. He has gone completely mad! Having determined that he is completely bound by the wealth of his kingdom and by his cravings, I offered him the gem but he didn’t accept it. He asked, ‘Who could attest, on your behalf, that I am poor and you are rich?’ Therefore, O Bhagavān—who is impartial to all sentient beings, who never turns away from them, and who is without obstinacy, impurity, and enmity—Bhagavān, please tell us clearly if what I have said is true!”
The Bhagavān then said, “Great king, you think yourself rich based on the resources of your kingdom that you have acquired in this life, such as gold, jewels, pearls, lapis lazuli, conch shells, crystals, corals, gold powder, silver, horses, elephants, chariots, infantry, cavalry, storehouses, and treasuries. Great king, Surata thinks himself rich based on his generosity, discipline, self-restraint, forbearance, gentleness, ethical discipline, religious observances, ascetic practices, conscientiousness, virtuous practices, frugality, kindness, compassion, joy, equanimity, devotion to the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha, faith, ethical discipline, learning, acts of generosity, wisdom, sense of shame, modesty, stability, and vows. Great king, suppose that all the people under your authority became wealthy like you. Even added together, the mound of their collective merit could not match one hundredth the merit that Surata accumulates by walking seven steps with his discipline, learning, religious observance, ascetic practices, and conscientiousness alone. It is incomparable.”
“Bhagavān,” said Prasenajit, “finding people like him, with such vast qualities, living in our land is a great discovery!”
The Bhagavān replied, “Great king, there are many people with these vast qualities in your land.”
King Prasenajit then spoke these verses to Surata:
Surata, a child of the lineage, then made a request of the Bhagavān: “Bhagavān, it is not enough for the great assembly of people gathered here merely to see you. Therefore, Bhagavān, please offer them whatever teachings will make their encounter with the Tathāgata meaningful!”
The Bhagavān replied, “Surata, if a child of the lineage possesses these four dharmas, he or she will clearly see the Tathāgata. What are the four? Conviction, faith, regret, and reverence are the four. Whoever possesses these four will clearly see the Tathāgata.
“There is another set of four: generating the intention for unsurpassable, perfect awakening while gazing at the form body of the Tathāgata and wishing, ‘May I become like him’; generating the special and pure intention because the Tathāgata is trustworthy; generating the intention to teach the Dharma to all sentient beings until they are completely liberated; and generating the intention to uphold the supreme Dharma so that the continuity of the lineage of the Three Jewels is maintained. Whoever possesses these four will clearly see the Tathāgata.
“There is still another set of four: seeing form as detached; seeing sensations, perceptions, formations, and consciousnesses as detached; seeing the four elements as space-like; and seeing the sense spheres to be like empty cities. Whoever possesses these four will clearly see the Tathāgata.