Summary

The Bhūtaḍāmara Tantra is a Buddhist esoteric manual on magic and exorcism. The instructions on ritual practices that constitute its main subject matter are intended to give the practitioner mastery over worldly divinities and spirits. Since the ultimate controller of such beings is Vajrapāṇi in his form of Bhūtaḍāmara, the “Tamer of Spirits,” it is Vajrapāṇi himself who delivers this tantra in response to a request from Śiva. Notwithstanding this esoteric origin, this tantra was compiled anonymously around the seventh or eighth century ᴄᴇ, introducing for the first time the cult of its titular deity. Apart from a few short ritual manuals (sādhana), this tantra remains the only major work dedicated solely to Bhūtaḍāmara.

Acknowledgements

This translation was produced by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. Wiesiek Mical translated the text from the Sanskrit manuscripts, prepared the Sanskrit edition, and wrote the introduction. Thomas Doctor then compared the translation against the Tibetan translation found in the Degé Kangyur and edited the text. Special thanks are owed to Dr. Péter-Dániel Szántó for making available his transcript of the manuscript, “Göttingen Xc 14/50 I,” which was our default source for the reconstruction of the Sanskrit text.

The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.

Introduction

There are many uncertainties regarding the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra, one of them being its canonical classification. Although it is included in the Kriyā Tantra section of the Degé edition of the canon, some Tibetan sources describe it as a Caryā text. Based on the contents, which include both Kriyā and Yoga Tantra material, assigning it to the Caryā class is not entirely without justification. However, even though some rites have an unmistakable Yoga Tantra character, the soteriological aims common to the Yoga Tantras are never explicitly stated. As the elements of this tantra characteristic of Kriyā Tantra clearly predominate, its classification as such seems correct. Based on its affiliation with Vajrapāṇi, this text belongs to the Vajra family (vajrakula) among the sub-classes of the Kriyā Tantras, rather than the Tathāgata or Padma families.

Another uncertainty is the age of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra. There are no titles of earlier works or names of historical figures to help us assess its date of composition. There appear to be, however, two strata of material in the text, corresponding to the division into the Kriyā and the Yoga Tantra content. The older stratum primarily contains non-Buddhist, pre-Vajrayāna magical lore not yet fully assimilated in formal Buddhist structures. This content likely belongs to the fourth or fifth century, its age being demonstrated by the recurrent use of the word dīnāra, a coin named after the Roman denarius. This type of coin was popular in India in the fourth and fifth centuries and is well attested in the literature of that period.

Features of Yoga Tantra can be found chiefly in chapter eight, where the visualization procedure, described as part of the main sādhana of Bhūtaḍāmara, includes most of the elements of deity yoga practice, including a sophisticated development stage (utpattikrama) practice. Based on the inclusion of these practices, it is unlikely that this section was composed prior to the seventh century. The mention of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra in the Nāma­mantrārthāva­lokinī‍—Vilāsa­vajra’s commentary to the Mañjuśrī­nāma­saṃgīti‍—which is probably the earliest reference to the text, sets the terminus ad quem to the late eighth century. Therefore, it seems most likely that the Bhūtaḍāmara Tantra was composed some time during the seventh and the eighth centuries.

Terminological Considerations

The central deity in this tantra is Bhūtaḍāmara, a wrathful form of Vajrapāṇi. In the tantra he is referred to by a variety of names, including Vajrapāṇi, Vajradhara, Guhyakādhipati, Mahākrodhādhipati, Mahākrodha, Krodharāja, Krodha, or simply by the title Blessed One (bhagavān). It needs to be noted, however, that in the Kriyā Tantras Vajradhara has not yet become a deity iconographically distinct from Vajrapāṇi, and so “Vajradhara” is used merely as an epithet for Vajrapāṇi. Likewise, guhyakādhipati‍—one of the most common titles of Vajrapāṇi in Buddhist literature‍—refers in the early Kriyā Tantras to Vajrapāṇi’s status as lord of the guhyakas, a class of semidivine beings, and not as the “Lord of Mysteries” as intended in later tantric systems. It is therefore a matter of doubt whether the Tibetan translators of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra were correct in rendering this title as “Lord of Mysteries” (gsang ba’i bdag po). One could guess that, since they made their translation in the eleventh century, they opted for an interpretation which, by then, would certainly have been predominant. But since the “mysteries” or “secrets” (guhya), such as the “secret” body, speech, and mind, are never mentioned in the tantra, it is unlikely that the latter interpretation was originally intended here. On the other hand, the title “Lord of Guhyakas” seems to better fit the context of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra, as guhyakas are high on the list of beings with magical abilities (perhaps not far behind vidyādharas) that yield to Bhūtaḍāmara’s power. The rest of Vajrapāṇi’s epithets all contain the word krodha (“wrath”), reflecting the wrathful nature of Bhūtaḍāmara.

There is also considerable confusion regarding the names of the principal deities and spirits featured in the tantra’s rituals. The lists of names presented in the individual recensions do not always align, and in some sources the number either falls short of or exceeds the expected set of eight deities. No attempt has been made in our translation to definitively standardize the lists of these names, as it is perhaps better to allow for some doubt than to venture arbitrary guesses.

Another ambiguity in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra concerns the term bhūta, such as is found in the name of the titular deity, and its feminine equivalent bhūtinī. In the tantra this term first and foremost refers to the bhūta order of spirits who need to be tamed, such as the “eight great bhūtas” or the “eight great bhūtinīs.” We reserve the use of the Sanskrit bhūta and bhūtinī for this class of beings. The terms bhūta and bhūtinī are also applied to other classes of nonhuman beings in this text, including the gods of the highest orders. In these instances we have elected to translate bhūta and bhūtinī as “male spirits” and “female spirits” respectively.

Apart from the names of different classes of beings, several other Sanskrit words are retained throughout the translation. This applies primarily to those terms that have already entered English lexicons, such as maṇḍala, mudrā, sādhana, pūjā, or liṅga, and also some technical terms for certain similar rites that would be difficult to differentiate in English translation. A sādhana procedure, for example, may include several types of offering, such as pūjā (this is more properly a worship that involves offerings), argha (welcome offering), homa (oblation offered into the fire), and bali (offering of edibles, usually to nonhuman beings including those of the lower orders). Only the first of these, pūjā, which is included in English lexicons, and the last, bali, have been left untranslated.

Structure of the Text

The arrangement of the text’s contents indicates that many changes may have taken place throughout the tantra’s long textual history‍—possibly through corruption or intentional redaction‍—that present challenges for the modern reader. The reader may therefore find it helpful to think of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra as a jigsaw puzzle that needs to be reassembled rather than try to find coherence in the arrangement of the extant recension of the text. As will be demonstrated in the summary that follows, these textual irregularities present themselves from the very beginning of the text and continue throughout. They include the omission of standard scriptural formulas, irregular use of section and chapter colophons, confusion in the names and number of sets of deities, and general incongruities in the content of the tantra.

The first irregularity comes at the very beginning of the text. The tantra begins not with the expected “Thus did I hear…” but with advice given by Vajrapāṇi, who begins with the standard Sanskrit phrase for introducing a new topic, athātas. What follows is not the usual scriptural formulation that introduces the context for the teaching, but rather a seemingly isolated piece of practical advice related to the practices that will be taught later on in the text.

The reader will also encounter colophons in unexpected or seemingly unnecessary places. Additionally, some of these colophons refer not to the main content of their given chapter, but to the content of a preceding section. As the colophons do not specify chapter numbers or provide other organizational information, it is possible that what had been section colophons in earlier versions of the text became chapter colophons in its later recensions. This confusion between section and chapter colophons is apparent in the different structures presented in the Buddhist and Śaiva versions of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra. The extant Buddhist version has as many as twenty-eight chapters, some unnaturally short, while its Śaiva counterpart has only sixteen. No attempt has been made in this translation to restore chapter divisions or to re-order the contents sequentially, as this would amount to redacting rather than translating the text.

After Vajrapāṇi’s unusual opening statement we reach what could be considered the proper introductory scene: the subjugation of all nonhuman beings, including the highest orders of gods, and their pledge of allegiance to Vajrapāṇi to offer every form of help to those who recite Vajrapāṇi’s mantra. The first to come forward and make a pledge is Aparājita, the chief among the eight bhūta kings, whose sādhana s, among the most prominent in the tantra, are taught in its final sections. Reflecting his complete thraldom, Aparājita serves as a pedestal for the feet of Bhūtaḍāmara in his form as the “lord of the maṇḍala.”

When challenged by Śiva, Vajrapāṇi demonstrates his awesome power by using mantra to first kill and then revive all the worldly deities and spirits, including Brahmā, Indra, and Śiva himself. With the mantra “that slays all spirits,” vajra flames issue from the pores of Vajrapāṇi’s skin, causing everyone’s death. With the mantra “that brings back the consciousness of the dead,” a stream of vivifying air issues forth from Vajrapāṇi’s nostrils, restoring them to life. Following this demonstration, an augural comment is made by the tathāgatas that in future times, whenever necessary, Vajrapāṇi will be the one to tame and subjugate worldly divinities and spirits. And indeed, throughout Vajrayāna literature this function is more often assigned to Vajrapāṇi in his wrathful forms than to any other deity.

Following Vajrapāṇi’s utterance of a mantra specifically targeting higher-order beings, Mahādeva-Śiva himself is the next to come forward and pledge fealty. His pledge marks a fundamental change in the hierarchies of the spirit world, as, following his lead, all the worldly divinities and spirits who had been under Śiva’s control join their master as subordinates to Vajrapāṇi. Mahādeva is perhaps the most important character in the tantra after Vajrapāṇi. He becomes Vajrapāṇi’s interlocutor who prompts him with requests to teach throughout the tantra. He also occupies the most prominent position in the inner circle of deities in the maṇḍala of Bhūtaḍāmara‍—directly in front of the lord himself.

Following Śiva’s example, the leaders of the eight classes of powerful nonhuman beings, with female figures leading the way, recognize Vajrapāṇi, in his form Mahākrodha (Great Wrath), as their master. Even if the word śaraṇa (“refuge”) is not used, their act is, for all intents and purposes, one of taking refuge. Each of these female spirits offers her heart mantra to Vajrapāṇi, an act that, because of a poetic use of puns, also indicates they are giving him their heart. Each of the individual spirits’ pledges to Vajrapāṇi establishes a bond between the spirit and the deity and, by extension, between the spirit and the practitioner who recites the Vajrapāṇi mantra and performs the spirit’s sādhana. The sādhana is the means to summon these spirits and hold them to their pledge (samaya).

The spirits’ pledge to Vajrapāṇi is an important theme in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra. Throughout the tantra it is stated again and again that a noncompliant spirit who breaks its pledge, or even fails to heed the summoning call, will perish. There is some ambiguity, however, as to whether it is the spirit or the practitioner that will perish if the sādhana goes awry. The language of most of the sādhana s found in the text clearly indicates that it is the spirit who will perish, but there are at least two instances in the Sanskrit sources of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra that could be interpreted either way. A variant in one manuscript makes it clear that it is the practitioner who will die if they fail in their performance of the ritual. If it is in fact the case that the warning extends also to the practitioner, the threat of death could apply equally to the performance of all the sādhana s in the tantra. It would then serve as a reminder of the dangers inherent to practices intended to gain control over spirits. Once the spirit is brought under control, however, it will unfailingly provide for all the practitioner’s temporal needs and offer all kinds of protection.

From the spirits’ perspective, the threat of breaking the pledge is perhaps mitigated to some extent by the fact that the spirits benefit from pledging themselves to Vajrapāṇi and the practitioner. In a statement found in the introduction to the last two sādhana s in the text we are told that these sādhana s‍—and, by implication, possibly also all the preceding sādhana s‍—are mutually thrilling for the bhūtinīs and the practitioner, and that the bhūtinīs become filled with joy. This statement concludes the tantra’s collection of sādhana s on a cheerful note!

The sādhana s presented in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra follow a consistent structure. One begins by going at night to a lonely place, offering oblations of prescribed articles into the ritual fire, and reciting the mantra a certain number of times. Sometimes the practitioner is directed to step upon an effigy of the spirit whom he is summoning. Within a specified time the spirit will arrive in person. After welcoming her with offerings, one should perform the prescribed duties associated with the role the spirit will take, either as a mother, sister, or wife. Pleased, she will henceforth perform her specific duties, and provide all the material necessities and comforts for the duration of one’s life, which is magically extended to hundreds or thousands of years. This procedural pattern seems to be typical of the apotropaic sādhana s of Kriyā Tantras. Only in later tantras would these methods become adapted to serve specifically soteriological purposes; in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra this may be the case only inasmuch as it contains Yoga Tantra elements.

The divinities and spirits featured in the sādhana s in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra typically come in groups of eight, reflecting their arrangement in the cardinal and intermediate directions. Their names are often given in a list or can be extracted from their respective sādhana s or mantras. And yet it is in the context of these lists of deities and their sādhana s that we again encounter irregularities in extant recensions of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra. Both the names and the sequence in which they are given are fluid between Sanskrit and Tibetan sources, a fact that is surprising given the importance of assigning deities to specific directions or divisions within the maṇḍala.

The first such octet to appear in the tantra is that of the Sundarī goddesses. When we reach the passage containing the mantras of these eight goddesses, we are again reminded that the tantra consists of parts that, although thematically consistent, appear not to follow a logical order in the extant sources. In what seems to be a glaring inconsistency, the eight mantras are introduced with a statement that it is the eight bhūta kings, starting with Aparājita, who are now offering their heart mantras to Vajrapāṇi. Also, because of the lack of a clear structure of the text’s contents, it is impossible to be sure whether the mudrās and rituals associated with the eight Sundarīs and Aparājita’s pledge are specifically those of the Sundarīs, those of any spirits belonging to the bhūta class, or are meant for female spirits in general.

After the Sundarī goddesses, the next to come forward and pledge their allegiance to Vajrapāṇi are the eight great female spirits who dwell in charnel grounds. They also give him their hearts and offer their heart mantras, prompting Vajrapāṇi to teach their sādhana s and rituals. As expected, their sādhana s are to be performed at night in a charnel ground or a cemetery, with the interesting exception of the sādhana for a spirit given the task of helping with agricultural work‍—this sādhana is to be performed in a field. The eight charnel ground goddesses are followed by the set of eight kātyāyanīs, a class of extremely wild and dangerous female spirits. The text again appears to be corrupt here, as it includes the mantras not of eight but of nine kātyāyanīs. The goddess who should perhaps be struck off the list is Sumbha­kātyāyanī, who is omitted in all the sources in the list of the eight mudrās that follows, and in one of the manuscripts is omitted altogether.

Next, following a short sādhana to be employed when trading black goat meat for gold with a female spirit inhabiting a charnel ground, Śiva requests Vajrapāṇi to teach the maṇḍala of Bhūtaḍāmara‍—the secret, all-accomplishing maṇḍala of the deity who “instils fear in all the bhūtas, nāgas, yakṣas, and vidyādharas; who removes all obstacles, afflictions, and pain; and who kills all the pretas, vetālas, and pūtanas dwelling in charnel grounds.” This maṇḍala is the first of two maṇḍalas of Bhūtaḍāmara taught in the tantra. The two differ in their composition and the arrangement of the retinue deities. These maṇḍalas and their associated sādhana s, which are elaborate and rich in ritual detail, are the main and most important rites taught in the tantra.

In the center of the first maṇḍala is Vajrapāṇi Great Wrath in his form as Bhūtaḍāmara. His iconography is described in full, and the deities and spirits comprising his retinue are listed, including the most important Hindu gods starting with Śiva. These gods, again in groups of eight, occupy the inner and outer circles of the maṇḍala, with the middle circle reserved for the eight goddesses of offerings. Following these iconographic details the ritual for initiating disciples into the maṇḍala is described, after which are presented the instructions on the main sādhana of Bhūtaḍāmara, including the mudrās and mantras of all the maṇḍala deities. This sādhana is the only one in the tantra that employs the stages of deity yoga practice typical of the Yoga Tantras, including the different stages of visualization, meditating on emptiness, generating oneself as the pledge being (samayasattva), donning the armor, and merging the pledge being with the wisdom being (jñānasattva). To conclude the section on the sādhana of Bhūtaḍāmara, the text explains its benefits: “By merely reciting the mantra of Vajradhara one will become equal to him. Should one fail in this, one will become a universal monarch of the four continents. If one merely utters the name of the glorious Vajradhara, the supreme master Great Wrath, all the spirits will become one’s servants.” The text then sets the rules and requirements for the preliminary practice, a practice sequence of prescribed duration that constitutes the necessary prelude before one can undertake a practice with a specific aim that varies according to the practitioner’s wish.

Because it includes the recitation of the mantras and use of the mudrās for the numerous deities of the Bhūtaḍāmara maṇḍala, as well as the other Yoga Tantra stages of practice just described, this sādhana is rather complicated and lengthy when performed in full. In comparison to the shorter Kriyā sādhana s, this sādhana is more like a complex work of art that weaves mental practices (visualization and meditation), sound (the mantras), and form (the physical gestures and the outer aspects of the ritual) into an elaborate tapestry.

Following this elaborate sādhana of Bhūtaḍāmara, the text transitions back to Kriyā Tantra-style sādhana s designed to gain control over worldly divinities and spirits. The implication could be that Kriyā Tantra sādhana s are to be employed with the goal of subjugating such spirits only after the practitioner has mastered the main practice of Bhūtaḍāmara that employs the stages of Yoga Tantra sādhana. The Kriyā Tantra sādhana s in this section all involve the use of effigies of the deities or spirits whom one is inducting into a bonded relationship (samaya) with oneself. The females again lead the way as the sādhana s of Umā, Śrī, Bhairavī, and Cāmuṇḍā come before the sādhana s of powerful worldly gods, including Mahādeva-Śiva, Viṣṇu, and Brahmā. Together, these deities form a formidable array of allies who can protect and help the practitioner in many different ways.

After some general advice and a few sādhana s that could be used for any female spirit, the text once again features female spirits who come in groups of eight. While there is some overlap in the names of the deities in the next two sets of bhūtinīs and apsarases, they must have been intended as different groups because their respective sections are separated by a scene of Vajrapāṇi asserting his power over the spirit world by pronouncing his invincible mantra. These two maṇḍalas are followed by sections presenting sets of yakṣiṇīs, nāginīs, and kinnarīs, the last of which are not eight but six (this time intentionally so). The sādhana s in the kinnarī section are five in number, each for an unspecified member of their group.

The next section contains a description of a different maṇḍala of Bhūtaḍāmara, including a detailed description of its many deities. Although this maṇḍala, its iconography, and its initiation ritual resemble those found in the Yoga Tantras, the sequence of deity yoga practice common to the Yoga Tantras is not included here as it was in the previous Bhūtaḍāmara maṇḍala. Instead, the text quickly moves on to sādhana s and rituals dedicated to individual spirits who, as before, come in groups of eight. These sādhana s, like all spirit sādhana s in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra, demonstrate a strictly Kriyā Tantra character. In this section, the sets of deities differ from those presented in the previous Bhūtaḍāmara sādhana, including the addition of new groups. The first among them are the sādhana s of the eight bhūtas headed by Aparājita. Each of their sādhana s is followed by a description of their mudrās, separated by a very short chapter that sums up their practice. Two sādhana s dedicated to bhūtinīs are presented next, followed by instructions for offering bali.

The Tibetan version ends at this point, which was in all likelihood the end of the Sanskrit version from which the Tibetan translators worked. The extant Sanskrit sources, however, include additional mantras and mudrās associated with the bali ritual and, rather syncretically, list the eighteen types of emptiness. The Sanskrit version finishes by repeating the names of the eight bhūtas‍—Aparājita and so forth‍—possibly suggesting that these eight are the most important ones referred to by the element bhūta in the name of Bhūtaḍāmara. The last of the bhūtas has the name Kiṃkarottama (“Best Servant”), giving expression, as it were, to the ethos of mastery over spirits as found in this tantra. Looking at these final additions to the Sanskrit version through the eyes of a philologist, they could perhaps provide clues to the type of changes that the Bhūtaḍāmara must have undergone before it reached the form available to us today, and possibly even before it was translated into Tibetan.

Notes on the Translation

The translation that follows is based on the Sanskrit text prepared by the translator from the extant Sanskrit witnesses. In cases when the Sanskrit sources differ from one another, either due to variant readings, through omission or addition, or based on differences in sequence, the translation follows, with only a few exceptions, the Sanskrit source that most closely agrees with the Tibetan translation. In some cases we have elected to privilege the Tibetan translation over all Sanskrit sources when it provided the most adequate reading. More information on these sources is given in the introduction that accompanies our edition of the Sanskrit text of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra.

In the present translation the reader may find some expressions and phrases that sound odd in English, but nevertheless reflect certain ideas or principles that are conveyed more accurately if phrased as they are in the original Sanskrit. Phrases such as “reciting the Great Wrath,” “reciters of the Vajrapāṇi,” or “anyone who recites one of the tathāgatas” refer to reciting the respective mantras and reflect the notion that the name of the deity is also the name of its mantra. This notion seems ubiquitous throughout the tantras (not only Buddhist) and is frequently explained in the Kriyā Tantras. Another oddity is the use of the English “to incant” in the sense of reciting the mantra over an object in order to invest it with a magical power; one may, for example, incant a bali, or incant sandalwood a certain number of times.

The present translation is certainly not free from shortcomings, and could be improved through further, in-depth studies of the tantra. A quite obvious shortcoming concerns the translation of the descriptions of mudrā gestures‍—it is just as basic as the original Sanskrit, and therefore inadequate for those not already familiar with the gestures being described.

There is a Śaiva version of the tantra that was produced between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries. Just as in the Buddhist version, the teaching is delivered by the Buddha Vajrapāṇi who speaks in the first person. The discourse, however, is introduced by Unmattabhairava in response to a question by Unmattabhairavī (the wrathful aspects of Śiva and Pārvatī respectively). The hierarchy of deities remains unchanged, with Vajrapāṇi Bhūtaḍāmara still enjoying the same status as in the Buddhist version. This perhaps could be attributed to the fact that, unlike in other early Buddhist tantras that describe the “subjugation of Śiva,” no confrontation is involved here; Śiva is never forced into submission. Overwhelmed by the power that Vajrapāṇi displays when killing and then reviving all worldly beings, which he experiences firsthand, he asks Vajrapāṇi for protection. It is noteworthy that on one occasion in this version of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra, Śiva is referred to as a “bodhisattva.” Consulting the Śaiva version of the tantra might have helped clear up some ambiguities, but unfortunately we were unable to gain access to the manuscripts.

Summary

The Bhūtaḍāmara Tantra is a Buddhist esoteric manual on magic and exorcism. The instructions on ritual practices that constitute its main subject matter are intended to give the practitioner mastery over worldly divinities and spirits. Since the ultimate controller of such beings is Vajrapāṇi in his form of Bhūtaḍāmara, the “Tamer of Spirits,” it is Vajrapāṇi himself who delivers this tantra in response to a request from Śiva. Notwithstanding this esoteric origin, this tantra was compiled anonymously around the seventh or eighth century ᴄᴇ, introducing for the first time the cult of its titular deity. Apart from a few short ritual manuals (sādhana), this tantra remains the only major work dedicated solely to Bhūtaḍāmara.

Acknowledgements

This translation was produced by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. Wiesiek Mical translated the text from the Sanskrit manuscripts, prepared the Sanskrit edition, and wrote the introduction. Thomas Doctor then compared the translation against the Tibetan translation found in the Degé Kangyur and edited the text. Special thanks are owed to Dr. Péter-Dániel Szántó for making available his transcript of the manuscript, “Göttingen Xc 14/50 I,” which was our default source for the reconstruction of the Sanskrit text.

The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.

Introduction

There are many uncertainties regarding the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra, one of them being its canonical classification. Although it is included in the Kriyā Tantra section of the Degé edition of the canon, some Tibetan sources describe it as a Caryā text. Based on the contents, which include both Kriyā and Yoga Tantra material, assigning it to the Caryā class is not entirely without justification. However, even though some rites have an unmistakable Yoga Tantra character, the soteriological aims common to the Yoga Tantras are never explicitly stated. As the elements of this tantra characteristic of Kriyā Tantra clearly predominate, its classification as such seems correct. Based on its affiliation with Vajrapāṇi, this text belongs to the Vajra family (vajrakula) among the sub-classes of the Kriyā Tantras, rather than the Tathāgata or Padma families.

Another uncertainty is the age of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra. There are no titles of earlier works or names of historical figures to help us assess its date of composition. There appear to be, however, two strata of material in the text, corresponding to the division into the Kriyā and the Yoga Tantra content. The older stratum primarily contains non-Buddhist, pre-Vajrayāna magical lore not yet fully assimilated in formal Buddhist structures. This content likely belongs to the fourth or fifth century, its age being demonstrated by the recurrent use of the word dīnāra, a coin named after the Roman denarius. This type of coin was popular in India in the fourth and fifth centuries and is well attested in the literature of that period.

Features of Yoga Tantra can be found chiefly in chapter eight, where the visualization procedure, described as part of the main sādhana of Bhūtaḍāmara, includes most of the elements of deity yoga practice, including a sophisticated development stage (utpattikrama) practice. Based on the inclusion of these practices, it is unlikely that this section was composed prior to the seventh century. The mention of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra in the Nāma­mantrārthāva­lokinī‍—Vilāsa­vajra’s commentary to the Mañjuśrī­nāma­saṃgīti‍—which is probably the earliest reference to the text, sets the terminus ad quem to the late eighth century. Therefore, it seems most likely that the Bhūtaḍāmara Tantra was composed some time during the seventh and the eighth centuries.

Terminological Considerations

The central deity in this tantra is Bhūtaḍāmara, a wrathful form of Vajrapāṇi. In the tantra he is referred to by a variety of names, including Vajrapāṇi, Vajradhara, Guhyakādhipati, Mahākrodhādhipati, Mahākrodha, Krodharāja, Krodha, or simply by the title Blessed One (bhagavān). It needs to be noted, however, that in the Kriyā Tantras Vajradhara has not yet become a deity iconographically distinct from Vajrapāṇi, and so “Vajradhara” is used merely as an epithet for Vajrapāṇi. Likewise, guhyakādhipati‍—one of the most common titles of Vajrapāṇi in Buddhist literature‍—refers in the early Kriyā Tantras to Vajrapāṇi’s status as lord of the guhyakas, a class of semidivine beings, and not as the “Lord of Mysteries” as intended in later tantric systems. It is therefore a matter of doubt whether the Tibetan translators of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra were correct in rendering this title as “Lord of Mysteries” (gsang ba’i bdag po). One could guess that, since they made their translation in the eleventh century, they opted for an interpretation which, by then, would certainly have been predominant. But since the “mysteries” or “secrets” (guhya), such as the “secret” body, speech, and mind, are never mentioned in the tantra, it is unlikely that the latter interpretation was originally intended here. On the other hand, the title “Lord of Guhyakas” seems to better fit the context of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra, as guhyakas are high on the list of beings with magical abilities (perhaps not far behind vidyādharas) that yield to Bhūtaḍāmara’s power. The rest of Vajrapāṇi’s epithets all contain the word krodha (“wrath”), reflecting the wrathful nature of Bhūtaḍāmara.

There is also considerable confusion regarding the names of the principal deities and spirits featured in the tantra’s rituals. The lists of names presented in the individual recensions do not always align, and in some sources the number either falls short of or exceeds the expected set of eight deities. No attempt has been made in our translation to definitively standardize the lists of these names, as it is perhaps better to allow for some doubt than to venture arbitrary guesses.

Another ambiguity in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra concerns the term bhūta, such as is found in the name of the titular deity, and its feminine equivalent bhūtinī. In the tantra this term first and foremost refers to the bhūta order of spirits who need to be tamed, such as the “eight great bhūtas” or the “eight great bhūtinīs.” We reserve the use of the Sanskrit bhūta and bhūtinī for this class of beings. The terms bhūta and bhūtinī are also applied to other classes of nonhuman beings in this text, including the gods of the highest orders. In these instances we have elected to translate bhūta and bhūtinī as “male spirits” and “female spirits” respectively.

Apart from the names of different classes of beings, several other Sanskrit words are retained throughout the translation. This applies primarily to those terms that have already entered English lexicons, such as maṇḍala, mudrā, sādhana, pūjā, or liṅga, and also some technical terms for certain similar rites that would be difficult to differentiate in English translation. A sādhana procedure, for example, may include several types of offering, such as pūjā (this is more properly a worship that involves offerings), argha (welcome offering), homa (oblation offered into the fire), and bali (offering of edibles, usually to nonhuman beings including those of the lower orders). Only the first of these, pūjā, which is included in English lexicons, and the last, bali, have been left untranslated.

Structure of the Text

The arrangement of the text’s contents indicates that many changes may have taken place throughout the tantra’s long textual history‍—possibly through corruption or intentional redaction‍—that present challenges for the modern reader. The reader may therefore find it helpful to think of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra as a jigsaw puzzle that needs to be reassembled rather than try to find coherence in the arrangement of the extant recension of the text. As will be demonstrated in the summary that follows, these textual irregularities present themselves from the very beginning of the text and continue throughout. They include the omission of standard scriptural formulas, irregular use of section and chapter colophons, confusion in the names and number of sets of deities, and general incongruities in the content of the tantra.

The first irregularity comes at the very beginning of the text. The tantra begins not with the expected “Thus did I hear…” but with advice given by Vajrapāṇi, who begins with the standard Sanskrit phrase for introducing a new topic, athātas. What follows is not the usual scriptural formulation that introduces the context for the teaching, but rather a seemingly isolated piece of practical advice related to the practices that will be taught later on in the text.

The reader will also encounter colophons in unexpected or seemingly unnecessary places. Additionally, some of these colophons refer not to the main content of their given chapter, but to the content of a preceding section. As the colophons do not specify chapter numbers or provide other organizational information, it is possible that what had been section colophons in earlier versions of the text became chapter colophons in its later recensions. This confusion between section and chapter colophons is apparent in the different structures presented in the Buddhist and Śaiva versions of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra. The extant Buddhist version has as many as twenty-eight chapters, some unnaturally short, while its Śaiva counterpart has only sixteen. No attempt has been made in this translation to restore chapter divisions or to re-order the contents sequentially, as this would amount to redacting rather than translating the text.

After Vajrapāṇi’s unusual opening statement we reach what could be considered the proper introductory scene: the subjugation of all nonhuman beings, including the highest orders of gods, and their pledge of allegiance to Vajrapāṇi to offer every form of help to those who recite Vajrapāṇi’s mantra. The first to come forward and make a pledge is Aparājita, the chief among the eight bhūta kings, whose sādhana s, among the most prominent in the tantra, are taught in its final sections. Reflecting his complete thraldom, Aparājita serves as a pedestal for the feet of Bhūtaḍāmara in his form as the “lord of the maṇḍala.”

When challenged by Śiva, Vajrapāṇi demonstrates his awesome power by using mantra to first kill and then revive all the worldly deities and spirits, including Brahmā, Indra, and Śiva himself. With the mantra “that slays all spirits,” vajra flames issue from the pores of Vajrapāṇi’s skin, causing everyone’s death. With the mantra “that brings back the consciousness of the dead,” a stream of vivifying air issues forth from Vajrapāṇi’s nostrils, restoring them to life. Following this demonstration, an augural comment is made by the tathāgatas that in future times, whenever necessary, Vajrapāṇi will be the one to tame and subjugate worldly divinities and spirits. And indeed, throughout Vajrayāna literature this function is more often assigned to Vajrapāṇi in his wrathful forms than to any other deity.

Following Vajrapāṇi’s utterance of a mantra specifically targeting higher-order beings, Mahādeva-Śiva himself is the next to come forward and pledge fealty. His pledge marks a fundamental change in the hierarchies of the spirit world, as, following his lead, all the worldly divinities and spirits who had been under Śiva’s control join their master as subordinates to Vajrapāṇi. Mahādeva is perhaps the most important character in the tantra after Vajrapāṇi. He becomes Vajrapāṇi’s interlocutor who prompts him with requests to teach throughout the tantra. He also occupies the most prominent position in the inner circle of deities in the maṇḍala of Bhūtaḍāmara‍—directly in front of the lord himself.

Following Śiva’s example, the leaders of the eight classes of powerful nonhuman beings, with female figures leading the way, recognize Vajrapāṇi, in his form Mahākrodha (Great Wrath), as their master. Even if the word śaraṇa (“refuge”) is not used, their act is, for all intents and purposes, one of taking refuge. Each of these female spirits offers her heart mantra to Vajrapāṇi, an act that, because of a poetic use of puns, also indicates they are giving him their heart. Each of the individual spirits’ pledges to Vajrapāṇi establishes a bond between the spirit and the deity and, by extension, between the spirit and the practitioner who recites the Vajrapāṇi mantra and performs the spirit’s sādhana. The sādhana is the means to summon these spirits and hold them to their pledge (samaya).

The spirits’ pledge to Vajrapāṇi is an important theme in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra. Throughout the tantra it is stated again and again that a noncompliant spirit who breaks its pledge, or even fails to heed the summoning call, will perish. There is some ambiguity, however, as to whether it is the spirit or the practitioner that will perish if the sādhana goes awry. The language of most of the sādhana s found in the text clearly indicates that it is the spirit who will perish, but there are at least two instances in the Sanskrit sources of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra that could be interpreted either way. A variant in one manuscript makes it clear that it is the practitioner who will die if they fail in their performance of the ritual. If it is in fact the case that the warning extends also to the practitioner, the threat of death could apply equally to the performance of all the sādhana s in the tantra. It would then serve as a reminder of the dangers inherent to practices intended to gain control over spirits. Once the spirit is brought under control, however, it will unfailingly provide for all the practitioner’s temporal needs and offer all kinds of protection.

From the spirits’ perspective, the threat of breaking the pledge is perhaps mitigated to some extent by the fact that the spirits benefit from pledging themselves to Vajrapāṇi and the practitioner. In a statement found in the introduction to the last two sādhana s in the text we are told that these sādhana s‍—and, by implication, possibly also all the preceding sādhana s‍—are mutually thrilling for the bhūtinīs and the practitioner, and that the bhūtinīs become filled with joy. This statement concludes the tantra’s collection of sādhana s on a cheerful note!

The sādhana s presented in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra follow a consistent structure. One begins by going at night to a lonely place, offering oblations of prescribed articles into the ritual fire, and reciting the mantra a certain number of times. Sometimes the practitioner is directed to step upon an effigy of the spirit whom he is summoning. Within a specified time the spirit will arrive in person. After welcoming her with offerings, one should perform the prescribed duties associated with the role the spirit will take, either as a mother, sister, or wife. Pleased, she will henceforth perform her specific duties, and provide all the material necessities and comforts for the duration of one’s life, which is magically extended to hundreds or thousands of years. This procedural pattern seems to be typical of the apotropaic sādhana s of Kriyā Tantras. Only in later tantras would these methods become adapted to serve specifically soteriological purposes; in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra this may be the case only inasmuch as it contains Yoga Tantra elements.

The divinities and spirits featured in the sādhana s in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra typically come in groups of eight, reflecting their arrangement in the cardinal and intermediate directions. Their names are often given in a list or can be extracted from their respective sādhana s or mantras. And yet it is in the context of these lists of deities and their sādhana s that we again encounter irregularities in extant recensions of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra. Both the names and the sequence in which they are given are fluid between Sanskrit and Tibetan sources, a fact that is surprising given the importance of assigning deities to specific directions or divisions within the maṇḍala.

The first such octet to appear in the tantra is that of the Sundarī goddesses. When we reach the passage containing the mantras of these eight goddesses, we are again reminded that the tantra consists of parts that, although thematically consistent, appear not to follow a logical order in the extant sources. In what seems to be a glaring inconsistency, the eight mantras are introduced with a statement that it is the eight bhūta kings, starting with Aparājita, who are now offering their heart mantras to Vajrapāṇi. Also, because of the lack of a clear structure of the text’s contents, it is impossible to be sure whether the mudrās and rituals associated with the eight Sundarīs and Aparājita’s pledge are specifically those of the Sundarīs, those of any spirits belonging to the bhūta class, or are meant for female spirits in general.

After the Sundarī goddesses, the next to come forward and pledge their allegiance to Vajrapāṇi are the eight great female spirits who dwell in charnel grounds. They also give him their hearts and offer their heart mantras, prompting Vajrapāṇi to teach their sādhana s and rituals. As expected, their sādhana s are to be performed at night in a charnel ground or a cemetery, with the interesting exception of the sādhana for a spirit given the task of helping with agricultural work‍—this sādhana is to be performed in a field. The eight charnel ground goddesses are followed by the set of eight kātyāyanīs, a class of extremely wild and dangerous female spirits. The text again appears to be corrupt here, as it includes the mantras not of eight but of nine kātyāyanīs. The goddess who should perhaps be struck off the list is Sumbha­kātyāyanī, who is omitted in all the sources in the list of the eight mudrās that follows, and in one of the manuscripts is omitted altogether.

Next, following a short sādhana to be employed when trading black goat meat for gold with a female spirit inhabiting a charnel ground, Śiva requests Vajrapāṇi to teach the maṇḍala of Bhūtaḍāmara‍—the secret, all-accomplishing maṇḍala of the deity who “instils fear in all the bhūtas, nāgas, yakṣas, and vidyādharas; who removes all obstacles, afflictions, and pain; and who kills all the pretas, vetālas, and pūtanas dwelling in charnel grounds.” This maṇḍala is the first of two maṇḍalas of Bhūtaḍāmara taught in the tantra. The two differ in their composition and the arrangement of the retinue deities. These maṇḍalas and their associated sādhana s, which are elaborate and rich in ritual detail, are the main and most important rites taught in the tantra.

In the center of the first maṇḍala is Vajrapāṇi Great Wrath in his form as Bhūtaḍāmara. His iconography is described in full, and the deities and spirits comprising his retinue are listed, including the most important Hindu gods starting with Śiva. These gods, again in groups of eight, occupy the inner and outer circles of the maṇḍala, with the middle circle reserved for the eight goddesses of offerings. Following these iconographic details the ritual for initiating disciples into the maṇḍala is described, after which are presented the instructions on the main sādhana of Bhūtaḍāmara, including the mudrās and mantras of all the maṇḍala deities. This sādhana is the only one in the tantra that employs the stages of deity yoga practice typical of the Yoga Tantras, including the different stages of visualization, meditating on emptiness, generating oneself as the pledge being (samayasattva), donning the armor, and merging the pledge being with the wisdom being (jñānasattva). To conclude the section on the sādhana of Bhūtaḍāmara, the text explains its benefits: “By merely reciting the mantra of Vajradhara one will become equal to him. Should one fail in this, one will become a universal monarch of the four continents. If one merely utters the name of the glorious Vajradhara, the supreme master Great Wrath, all the spirits will become one’s servants.” The text then sets the rules and requirements for the preliminary practice, a practice sequence of prescribed duration that constitutes the necessary prelude before one can undertake a practice with a specific aim that varies according to the practitioner’s wish.

Because it includes the recitation of the mantras and use of the mudrās for the numerous deities of the Bhūtaḍāmara maṇḍala, as well as the other Yoga Tantra stages of practice just described, this sādhana is rather complicated and lengthy when performed in full. In comparison to the shorter Kriyā sādhana s, this sādhana is more like a complex work of art that weaves mental practices (visualization and meditation), sound (the mantras), and form (the physical gestures and the outer aspects of the ritual) into an elaborate tapestry.

Following this elaborate sādhana of Bhūtaḍāmara, the text transitions back to Kriyā Tantra-style sādhana s designed to gain control over worldly divinities and spirits. The implication could be that Kriyā Tantra sādhana s are to be employed with the goal of subjugating such spirits only after the practitioner has mastered the main practice of Bhūtaḍāmara that employs the stages of Yoga Tantra sādhana. The Kriyā Tantra sādhana s in this section all involve the use of effigies of the deities or spirits whom one is inducting into a bonded relationship (samaya) with oneself. The females again lead the way as the sādhana s of Umā, Śrī, Bhairavī, and Cāmuṇḍā come before the sādhana s of powerful worldly gods, including Mahādeva-Śiva, Viṣṇu, and Brahmā. Together, these deities form a formidable array of allies who can protect and help the practitioner in many different ways.

After some general advice and a few sādhana s that could be used for any female spirit, the text once again features female spirits who come in groups of eight. While there is some overlap in the names of the deities in the next two sets of bhūtinīs and apsarases, they must have been intended as different groups because their respective sections are separated by a scene of Vajrapāṇi asserting his power over the spirit world by pronouncing his invincible mantra. These two maṇḍalas are followed by sections presenting sets of yakṣiṇīs, nāginīs, and kinnarīs, the last of which are not eight but six (this time intentionally so). The sādhana s in the kinnarī section are five in number, each for an unspecified member of their group.

The next section contains a description of a different maṇḍala of Bhūtaḍāmara, including a detailed description of its many deities. Although this maṇḍala, its iconography, and its initiation ritual resemble those found in the Yoga Tantras, the sequence of deity yoga practice common to the Yoga Tantras is not included here as it was in the previous Bhūtaḍāmara maṇḍala. Instead, the text quickly moves on to sādhana s and rituals dedicated to individual spirits who, as before, come in groups of eight. These sādhana s, like all spirit sādhana s in the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra, demonstrate a strictly Kriyā Tantra character. In this section, the sets of deities differ from those presented in the previous Bhūtaḍāmara sādhana, including the addition of new groups. The first among them are the sādhana s of the eight bhūtas headed by Aparājita. Each of their sādhana s is followed by a description of their mudrās, separated by a very short chapter that sums up their practice. Two sādhana s dedicated to bhūtinīs are presented next, followed by instructions for offering bali.

The Tibetan version ends at this point, which was in all likelihood the end of the Sanskrit version from which the Tibetan translators worked. The extant Sanskrit sources, however, include additional mantras and mudrās associated with the bali ritual and, rather syncretically, list the eighteen types of emptiness. The Sanskrit version finishes by repeating the names of the eight bhūtas‍—Aparājita and so forth‍—possibly suggesting that these eight are the most important ones referred to by the element bhūta in the name of Bhūtaḍāmara. The last of the bhūtas has the name Kiṃkarottama (“Best Servant”), giving expression, as it were, to the ethos of mastery over spirits as found in this tantra. Looking at these final additions to the Sanskrit version through the eyes of a philologist, they could perhaps provide clues to the type of changes that the Bhūtaḍāmara must have undergone before it reached the form available to us today, and possibly even before it was translated into Tibetan.

Notes on the Translation

The translation that follows is based on the Sanskrit text prepared by the translator from the extant Sanskrit witnesses. In cases when the Sanskrit sources differ from one another, either due to variant readings, through omission or addition, or based on differences in sequence, the translation follows, with only a few exceptions, the Sanskrit source that most closely agrees with the Tibetan translation. In some cases we have elected to privilege the Tibetan translation over all Sanskrit sources when it provided the most adequate reading. More information on these sources is given in the introduction that accompanies our edition of the Sanskrit text of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra.

In the present translation the reader may find some expressions and phrases that sound odd in English, but nevertheless reflect certain ideas or principles that are conveyed more accurately if phrased as they are in the original Sanskrit. Phrases such as “reciting the Great Wrath,” “reciters of the Vajrapāṇi,” or “anyone who recites one of the tathāgatas” refer to reciting the respective mantras and reflect the notion that the name of the deity is also the name of its mantra. This notion seems ubiquitous throughout the tantras (not only Buddhist) and is frequently explained in the Kriyā Tantras. Another oddity is the use of the English “to incant” in the sense of reciting the mantra over an object in order to invest it with a magical power; one may, for example, incant a bali, or incant sandalwood a certain number of times.

The present translation is certainly not free from shortcomings, and could be improved through further, in-depth studies of the tantra. A quite obvious shortcoming concerns the translation of the descriptions of mudrā gestures‍—it is just as basic as the original Sanskrit, and therefore inadequate for those not already familiar with the gestures being described.

There is a Śaiva version of the tantra that was produced between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries. Just as in the Buddhist version, the teaching is delivered by the Buddha Vajrapāṇi who speaks in the first person. The discourse, however, is introduced by Unmattabhairava in response to a question by Unmattabhairavī (the wrathful aspects of Śiva and Pārvatī respectively). The hierarchy of deities remains unchanged, with Vajrapāṇi Bhūtaḍāmara still enjoying the same status as in the Buddhist version. This perhaps could be attributed to the fact that, unlike in other early Buddhist tantras that describe the “subjugation of Śiva,” no confrontation is involved here; Śiva is never forced into submission. Overwhelmed by the power that Vajrapāṇi displays when killing and then reviving all worldly beings, which he experiences firsthand, he asks Vajrapāṇi for protection. It is noteworthy that on one occasion in this version of the Bhūta­ḍāmara Tantra, Śiva is referred to as a “bodhisattva.” Consulting the Śaiva version of the tantra might have helped clear up some ambiguities, but unfortunately we were unable to gain access to the manuscripts.