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In both catalogs it is listed as being sixty ślokas in length, although the Phangthangma notably does not list it under the Ratnakūṭa collection but instead includes it among a general list of short sūtras less than one bampo in length.
Currently the manuscript is kept in the Potala Palace in Lhasa. Vinītā’s critical edition is based on a copy of the manuscript kept in the China Tibetology Research Center. For further details on the state of this manuscript see Vinītā 2010, vol. I,1, pp. xv–xvii.
Our research has revealed two Sakya texts that quote a text called seng ges zhus pa (Siṃha’s Questions), saying that it decries the negative effects of giving someone alcohol: “If one gives alcohol to another, one will be born five hundred times with crippled limbs” (gzhan la chang sbyin na skye ba lnga brgyar lag rdum du skye). See Könchok Lhündrup and Sangyé Phuntsok, sa skya’i chos ’byung gces bsdus volume 4, p. 55; the same quote is found in Künga Sangpo, kun dga’ bzang po’i bka’ ’bum, volume 4, folio 314.a (p. 627). However, this passage is not found in any version of the text known to us. In fact, the sūtra seems to only discuss virtuous causes for positive qualities and does not discuss the inverse negative ones.
Our research included a thorough survey of Sanskrit, Pali, and Tibetan resources for any mention of Siṃha. There is a Licchavi general named Sīha (the Pali equivalent of Siṃha), who questions the Buddha about generosity, found in the Anguttara Nikāya of the Pali canon (A.iii.38f; iv.79f), but he is unrelated to the Prince Siṃha of this sūtra. Further research on Siṃha’s identity might consider untranslated Chinese sources, which falls outside the scope of this project.
The first of the two fragments, IOL Tib J 201, is not currently available. The second fragment, IOL Tib J 202, did not show any significant difference from the passages found in the Kangyur witnesses.
These two lines are included in the first verse of the Potala Sanskrit manuscript, where Vinītā has conjecturally reconstructed the phrase jino hy apratipudgalaḥ (“the victor, the unparalleled one”). Because of this, verses 1–4 of the Tibetan are out of line with the Sanskrit but realign with verse 5 in both editions due to the omission in the Sanskrit of the second half of verse 4 (see n.15). These two lines are absent in Taishō 310.
It is curious that the anonymously translated Chinese version (Taishō 344) names the prince 和休 (he xiu). Old Chinese phonology (Karlgren 1957) give this as g’ăb χia̯b or similar, whereas Tang dynasty reconstructions (Stimson 1976) would suggest *huɑ*xiou, which approximates the Indic siṃha only if the sequence of syllables is reversed. Assuming the possibility that 和休 is metathesis, 休和 may denote an attempt to transcribe the Prakrit form sīha (Woolner 1912, p. 213), which also means “Lion.”
The N, H, and S editions of the Kangyur differ from D and the Sanskrit, as they all have “noblewomen,” or literally “daughters of merchants” (tshong dpon bu mo); however, all the Kangyur editions later on in verse 47 refer to Siṃha’s attendants as “these brahmin boys” (bram ze’i khye’u). Usually, the term khye’u refers to boys, so we have translated it accordingly. Taishō 310 reads “five hundred friends” (與其同友五百人俱。).
These last two lines in verse 4 are not found in the Sanskrit edition or any of the Chinese translations.
This verse is rendered in prose in Taishō 310 as “At that time, the Tathāgata, who had reached the shore of perfection in all conduct, replied to the question and spoke the following verses” (爾時如來了達諸行究竟彼岸, 隨問而答即說頌曰).
Taishō 310 reads that the cause for miraculous birth is generosity (Ch. 施, correlating to Skt. dāna). The line in Taishō 310 reads, “One becomes lotus-born through giving” (施蓮花化生).
Śikṣ places the last two lines of verse 8 after verse 16, which also refers to the giving of Dharma.
The last two lines of this verse read differently in Taishō 310: “Through having an attitude of equality toward all beings, one has the form that delights beings upon seeing” (等心於眾生，觀者無厭足).
The last two lines of Taishō 310 read, “[How can they achieve] practicing as taught in Dharma; [How can they be] solid […] and indestructible?” (如法而修行，堅固不可壞). Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 471, note c.
Tib. g.yo med pa (“undeceiving”) can also be read as “unwavering”; however, the Sanskrit aśaṭhaḥ (“not being false”) and the Chinese 不諂 (“not flattering”) support the former connotation used here. The Tibetan g.yo ba med pa (=aśaṭhaḥ) is attested in Negi 1993, p. 6088.
The Sanskrit manuscript reads paṇḍito dharmarakṣayā (“One becomes wise by safeguarding the Dharma”). Taishō 310 reads, “by protecting Dharma his mind becomes solid” (尊重所修行，護法心堅固). Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 473, note a.
We are here following the Sanskrit manuscript and Chinese by placing this epithet for buddhas in the plural, since the Tibetan is ambiguous as to whether it is singular or plural. Although here in Siṃha’s question this might seem a bit odd, due to the cosmology that is referenced later on in the sūtra, it makes sense for Siṃha to speak about meeting with many buddhas throughout the multi-lifetime career of a bodhisattva.
The last two lines of this verse read differently in Taishō 310: “As [we] come to ask for the subtle truth, may the Tathāgata tell [us about it]” (能請微妙義, 唯願如來說).
Sanskrit: śrāddho ’kṣaṇaṃ varjayati. Śikṣ quotes as śrāddhayā kṣaṇam akṣaṇaṃ varjayati (“Opportune and inopportune births are relinquished through faith”).
Here the Sanskrit applies the adverb “always” to “becoming familiar,” which are both in the same pāda in the Sanskrit manuscript: śūnyatāṃ bhāvayen nityam.
The last two lines of this verse in Taishō 310 read “How can he be loved by all in every lifespan?” (而於世世中，為眾之所愛). Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 477, note c.
Here we are following the Sanskrit adhimokṣa (“firm resolution”), which is confirmed by Taishō 310, 勝解. The Tibetan has rnam par grol ba (“complete liberation”), which in this case would suggest the Sanskrit back-translation vimokṣa.
Taishō 310 reads “he will be loved wherever he is born” (如說而修行，所生令眾愛). Vinītā (2010), vol. I,2, 473, note e.
The last two lines of this verse in Taishō 310 read, “How does one make beings / feel delighted upon seeing them?” (云何令世間，見者皆歡喜).
This line in Taishō 310 reads, “The voice becomes like the song of the kalaviṅka bird through speaking gentle words” (迦陵由軟語).
Here an equivalent of the Tibetan term phra ma (“slander”) is not found in the Sanskrit manuscript (which would have read as piśuna or paiśunya), though it is found in Taishō 310. See also Silk’s analysis of this section, where he offers a very different reading of the unemended manuscript: “Who separates the united pleases one of multiple inclinations.” Silk 2013, p. 78.
Following the Sanskrit, which gives the singular pārivara. The Tibetan has g.yog ’khor rnams (“attendants”).
D: chags pa med pas; Sanskrit: alobhena. Taishō 310 has “being without jealousy” (Ch. 不嫉) to be the cause of obtaining wealth, although it may be implied that this is jealousy for other’s wealth, which would correlate to alobha in the Sanskrit. The Tibetan has “being without jealousy” (phrag dog med pas) as the cause for the third quality in the Buddha’s reply, for being “distinguished wherever one is born.”
For the last two lines of this verse the Sanskrit reads, “Without envy, one is distinguished. Being humble, one always becomes the best” (anīrṣayā maheśatvaṃ nirmānāgragataḥ sadā ||). Taishō 310 is closer to the Sanskrit reading here: “Be humble to accomplish honor, / And one will possess might, power, and ease” (謙下成尊貴，有威德自在).
Verses 27 through 30 constitute the six superknowledges (ṣaḍabhijñā), although for the third among these, which is represented in the last two lines of this verse, the Sanskrit reads differently: “How, O Guide, does one come to know / The arising thoughts of beings?” (cittotpattiṃ ca sattvānāṃ jānīte kena nāyaka). Taishō 310’s parallel verse supports the Sanskrit, although the two sets of questions appear in separate locations in the text and in the opposite order. The two older Chinese translations support the Tibetan, representing the third superknowledge as knowing the death and transmigration of beings, rather than their thoughts.
Here the Sanskrit reads cittotpattijñatā jñānād (“The arising thoughts of beings are known through wisdom”). Taishō 310 says this is acquired through “avoiding the two extremes” ( 捨離於二邊).
This translation follows the reading in the Sanskrit witness, which gives the plural bodhisattvānām.
In Taishō 310 the order of these lines is different: miraculous powers come first, followed by previous lives and then defilements.
Tib. bsgom pa. While Vinītā gives the emended Sanskrit abhyāsād (“constancy”), Silk prefers the unemended manuscript reading of anāśād (“nondestruction”). Silk 2013, p. 78.
The third and fourth lines of this verse read differently in Taishō 310: “How does one obtain perfect light that follows the body? The ocean of merits is to be explained” (獲隨體圓光，功德海當说).
Verses 31 and 32 here appear later in the Sanskrit manuscript as Siṃha’s last question in the series, right after verse 40. The sequence of verses here follows the Tibetan translation.
For this line, Taishō 310 has “The saṅgha is perfected through the power of patience” (忍力眾成就).
Tib. bsdu ba; Sanskrit: saṃgraha. Vinītā interprets this to mean one “attracts” all qualities. Vinītā 2010, vol. I,2, p. 489.
This verse is somewhat different in the Potala Sanskrit manuscript: “Through what act / Are all the dharmas included? / O Leader, how does one become / Dear to all beings?” (saṃgrahaḥ sarvadharmāṇāṃ karmaṇā kena jāyate | priyaś ca sarvasattvānāṃ kathaṃ bhavati nāyaka ||). Note that the Sanskrit gives two questions here, while in the Tibetan there is only one. This verse is cited in Śikṣ; while the first two lines are identical to the Potala Sanskrit manuscript, the second two lines support the Tibetan: priyaś ca bhoti sattvānāṃ yatra yatropapadyate.
Taishō 310 reads differently: “By having sufficient great aspiration / And by not retreating from the mind of awakening” (勝志樂具足，不退菩提心). “In order to liberate all beings” is absent.
The following two verses, 37 and 38, are quoted in Śīkṣ. The content is quite similar to the Sanskrit manuscript. However, Siṃha’s question has been changed to a statement by exchanging the interrogative (kena) for a demonstrative pronoun (tena).
Given the omission of the first line in Taishō 310 of this verse, the fourth line differs as well: “Hopefully the Honored One will explain it” (唯願人尊說).
There is a parallel of this phrase found in the Divyāvadāna, where the Buddha describes thirty-seven ways that a wise person offers gifts: “He gives a gift of the five essences, which results in his having great strength in all his lives to come.” Rotman 2017, p. 265.
The N and H editions of the Kangyur have “steadfast conduct” (spyod pa brtan pa). The Sanskrit adds “O Sage” (mune).
For the last two lines of verse 43, the Sanskrit reads “The Buddha revealed a smile illuminating numerous fields” (smitaṃ prāviṣkarod buddho ’nekakṣetrāvabhāsakam|). Taishō 310 matches the Sanskrit.
This verse is expanded by the two lines of verse in the Tibetan. It is of regular meter length in the Sanskrit.
In the Chinese version, the subject is “the prince and his five hundred friends” (此王子等五百同友).
Here the Sanskrit reads this number as eighty koṭis and twelve niyutas. Taishō 310 has ten niyutas and eighty koṭis (十那由他八十億).
Tib. tshun chad du; Sanskrit has upāharya, “after having offered…” (according to Vinītā’s emendation, upahāya is found in the Sanskrit manuscript). Vinītā 2010, p. 498, n. 4.
For the last two pādas of this verse the Sanskrit reads, “I have ripened them when they showed promise of accomplishment” (paripācitā mayā caite yadā siddhipradāyakāḥ ||). Taishō 310 also includes “When I came before the Buddha Dīpaṅkara as a young brahmin I brought them to ripen” (而我往在然燈佛時。作婆羅門子成熟於彼). This addition, implying that the Buddha was there with the five hundred brahmin boys, relates to the narrative of the brahmin Megha, a previous incarnation of the Buddha Śākyamuni who made an offering to the Buddha Dīpaṅkara and received from him the prophecy that he would someday attain buddhahood as Śākyamuni. The Mahāvastu recounts this narrative while also mentioning five hundred brahmins who were fellow students of Megha, although it does not mention them going before Dīpaṅkara. See Conze 1973, pp. 20–24.
This reading follows D: mdzes pa, which comes close to reflecting the Sanskrit suśobhana; K has mdzes po; Y, H, N, and S have “great” (chen po).
The name of this eon varies significantly among the Chinese versions: Taishō 310 has 安樂光嚴 (“Adorned with Radiant Peace and Happiness,” Skt. Sukhaprabhāśubha), although 光嚴 may just be a description of the eon as being “splendid” (śobha), in which case the proper name would just be 安樂 “Peace and Happiness”; Taishō 343 has 摩訶波羅會, which is possibly a transliteration for “Mahābala”; and Taishō 344 has 摩訶波羅蜜, a transliteration for “Mahāpāramitā.”
The Sanskrit has “the most excellent among humans” (dvipadottamāḥ). “In that single eon / They will all become guides” is absent in the Chinese.
In a general sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states. In the Mahāyāna literature, in particular in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, we find extensive lists of different samādhis, numbering over one hundred.
In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. The Drajor Bamponyipa (sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted.
King Ajātaśatru of Magadha succeeded his father, Bimbisāra, after imprisoning him and causing his death. Despite this evil act, King Ajātaśatru was later repentant and, in the end, is viewed favorably in Buddhist literature.
Another name for Maitreya, the future buddha.
The buddha of the western buddhafield of Sukhāvatī, where fortunate beings are reborn to make further progress toward spiritual maturity. Amitābha made his great vows to create such a realm when he was a bodhisattva called Dharmākara. In the Pure Land Buddhist tradition, popular in East Asia, aspiring to be reborn in his buddha realm is the main emphasis; in other Mahāyāna traditions, too, it is a widespread practice. For a detailed description of the realm, see The Display of the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī, Toh 115. In some tantras that make reference to the five families he is the tathāgata associated with the lotus family.
Amitābha, “Infinite Light,” is also known in many Indian Buddhist works as Amitāyus, “Infinite Life.” In both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist traditions he is often conflated with another buddha named “Infinite Life,” Aparimitāyus, or “Infinite Life and Wisdom,”Aparimitāyurjñāna, the shorter version of whose name has also been back-translated from Tibetan into Sanskrit as Amitāyus but who presides over a realm in the zenith. For details on the relation between these buddhas and their names, see The Aparimitāyurjñāna Sūtra (1) Toh 674, i.9.
A state of mind that regards all being equally and is without hostility or malice towards any being.
In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).
A pure realm manifested by a buddha in which beings may follow the path to awakening without fear of falling into lower realms. In many sources it is said to be brought to manifestation through a buddha or bodhisattva’s merit and aspiration.
The defining characteristics (lakṣaṇa) of phenomena (dharma). The term lakṣaṇa is used in a variety of contexts to indicates the primary characteristic or defining feature of any particular phenomena; for instance the lakṣaṇa of fire is that it is hot and burning.
An Indian preceptor from Kashmir who was resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries. He was a frequent collaborator of Yeshé Dé.
Dīpaṅkara is a buddha of the past said to have lived one hundred thousand years before Śākyamuni. In depictions of the buddhas of the three times, he represents the buddha of the past, while Śākyamuni represents the present, and Maitreya represents the future.
Clairaudience, i.e., the sublime ability to understand all languages and listen to them whether they are nearby or far away. This is the second of the six (or sometimes five) superknowledges (ṣaḍabhijñā).
Clairvoyance, i.e., the ability to see all forms whether they are near or far, subtle or gross; also the ability to see the births and deaths of sentient beings. This is the first of the six (or sometimes five) superknowledges (ṣaḍabhijñā).
The eighty minor or secondary signs possessed by a “great being” (mahāpuruṣa), which all buddhas are said to have.
The higher states of rebirth including those of gods, asuras, and human beings.
In a general sense, the mental inclination or focus toward a virtuous object. The term is also classified as a mental factor (caitta), being categorized variably according to different Buddhist schools but generally indicating the mental ability to focus on one object without straying to another. The term is also commonly translated as “determination,” “interest,” or “zeal.”
The identity of the five essences is uncertain; they are only a few mentions of the term in Kangyur, none of which identify what they are. According to most Tibetan dictionaries, such as the dung dkar tshig mdzod chen mo, they are honey (sbrang rtsi), raw sugar (bu ram), salt (tshwa), ghee (zhun mar), and sesame oil (til mar). Rotman notes that Ayurveda sources also list the five essences as “milk, sugar, honey, ghee, and long pepper (Piper longum).” See Rotman (2017), p. 543, n. 571.
See the six superknowledges. The five superknowledges follow the same set excluding the knowledge of how to extinguish the defilements (discussed fourth in Siṃha’s Questions).
The practice of giving or making offerings to others. One of the six perfections of a bodhisattva.
The name of the eon in the future in which Siṃha and his attendants are prophesied to become buddhas by the Buddha Śākyamuni. This name varies significantly in the Chinese versions of Siṃha’s Questions (see n.99).
An epithet of a buddha.
An epithet commonly referring to buddhas or high-level bodhisattvas.
An epithet of a buddha.
The Sanskrit literally means “without leisure”; this refers to being born in a state in which one will not have the opportunity to meet with a buddha or their teachings. Eight situations are typically listed: (1) being born in a hell realm, (2) as an animal, (3) as a hungry ghost, (4) as a long-life god, (5) in a borderland or non-Buddhist country, (6) having wrong views, (7) as someone with impaired faculties who is unable to understand the teachings, or (8) in a time or place where no buddha has come.
A general term for practice of the Dharma. Sometimes translated as “training.”
The mental state of jealousy, īrṣyā is sometimes translated as “envy.” It is classified as one of the twenty subsidiary afflictions (upakleśa).
The name that Siṃha and his five hundred attendants will take when they become buddhas in the future, according to the Buddha’s prophecy. This name varies significantly in the Chinese versions of Siṃha’s Questions (see verse 48 and n.102).
A mythical Indian bird renowned for its beautiful call. Some dictionaries equate it with the Indian cuckoo (or other Indian songbirds), while other sources will attribute mythical qualities to it.
One of the four immeasurables of the Mahāyāna, known in early Buddhism as “pure abodes” (Skt. brahmavihāra), which comprise (1) love, sometimes translated as “loving kindness,” (2) compassion, (3) empathetic joy, and (4) impartiality. Immeasurable love arises from the wish for all living beings to have happiness and the causes of happiness.
The bodhisattva Maitreya is an important figure in many Buddhist traditions, where he is unanimously regarded as the buddha of the future era. He is said to currently reside in the heaven of Tuṣita, as Śākyamuni’s regent, where he awaits the proper time to take his final rebirth and become the fifth buddha in the Fortunate Eon, reestablishing the Dharma in this world after the teachings of the current buddha have disappeared. Within the Mahāyāna sūtras, Maitreya is elevated to the same status as other central bodhisattvas such as Mañjuśrī and Avalokiteśvara, and his name appears frequently in sūtras, either as the Buddha’s interlocutor or as a teacher of the Dharma. Maitreya literally means “Loving One.” He is also known as Ajita, meaning “Invincible.”
For more information on Maitreya, see, for example, the introduction to Maitreya’s Setting Out (Toh 198).
The principal deity in Paranirmitavaśavartin, the highest heaven in the desire realm. He is best known for his role in trying to prevent the Buddha’s awakening. The name Māra is also used as a generic name for the deities in his abode, and also as an impersonal term for destructive forces that keep beings imprisoned in saṃsāra.
One of the most important trainings for the Buddhist practitioner, it is traditionally taught within the teachings on the four applications of mindfulness.
Regarded as the most superior of the four modes of birth, the three other modes being birth from an egg, birth from a womb, or birth from warmth and moisture. Those who take a miraculous birth are spontaneously born fully mature at the time of their birth.
Morally virtuous or disciplined conduct and the abandonment of morally undisciplined conduct of body, speech, and mind. In a general sense, moral discipline is the cause for rebirth in higher, more favorable states, but it is also foundational to Buddhist practice as one of the three trainings (triśikṣā) and one of the six perfections of a bodhisattva.
An Indian preceptor who was resident in Tibet during the late eighth and early ninth centuries.
On a mundane level, patience is said to be the cause for becoming beautiful in future lives, but it is also foundational to Buddhist practice and one of the six perfections of a bodhisattva. As such it can be classified into three modes: the capacity to tolerate abuse from sentient beings, to tolerate the hardships of the path to buddhahood, and to tolerate the profound nature of ultimate reality.
See Patience.
A state of mind characterized by having joyful persistence when engaging in virtuous activity. One of the six perfections of a bodhisattva.
A strong sense of determination, often associated with altruism.
The ancient capital of Magadha prior to its relocation to Pāṭaliputra during the Mauryan dynasty, Rājagṛha is one of the most important locations in Buddhist history. The literature tells us that the Buddha and his saṅgha spent a considerable amount of time in residence in and around Rājagṛha—in nearby places, such as the Vulture Peak Mountain (Gṛdhrakūṭaparvata), a major site of the Mahāyāna sūtras, and the Bamboo Grove (Veṇuvana)—enjoying the patronage of King Bimbisāra and then of his son King Ajātaśatru. Rājagṛha is also remembered as the location where the first Buddhist monastic council was held after the Buddha Śākyamuni passed into parinirvāṇa. Now known as Rajgir and located in the modern Indian state of Bihar.
On a mundane level, patience is said to be the cause for becoming beautiful in future lives, but it is also foundational to Buddhist practice and one of the six perfections of a bodhisattva. As such it can be classified into three modes: the capacity to tolerate abuse from sentient beings, to tolerate the hardships of the path to buddhahood, and to tolerate the profound nature of ultimate reality.
See Patience.
From the Sanskrit root √dhṛ, (“to retain” or “to hold”), a dhāraṇī is a verbal formula that holds the words and meaning of a larger text or doctrine. In its simplest function it serves as a mnemonic device for remembering a certain teaching, but in certain contexts the dhāraṇī may carry a magical connotation, and in this sense it is a precursor to the mantra.
Though often specifically reserved for the monastic community, this term can be applied to any of the four Buddhist communities—monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen—as well as to identify the different groups of practitioners, like the community of bodhisattvas or the community of śrāvakas. It is also the third of the Three Jewels (triratna) of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Teaching, and the Community.
Seventh of the ten nonvirtuous (akuśala) actions, the third of the three related to speech (the first two being slander and harsh speech).
Prince Siṃha, son of King Ajātaśatru.
The six superknowledges in Siṃha’s Question are discussed in verses 27–30 in the following order: (1) divine sight, a form of clairvoyance; (2) divine hearing, a form of clairaudience; (3) knowing the dying, transmigration, and rebirth of sentient beings; (4) knowing how to extinguish the defilements; (5) the recollection of former lives; and (6) knowing how to perform miraculous transformations. In Buddhist literature, the six are not always given in this order, and sometimes the superknowledges are listed as five, excluding knowing how to extinguish the defilements.
Fifth of the ten nonvirtuous (akuśala) actions, the first of the three related to speech (the latter two being harsh speech and senseless talk).
The mental state of stinginess, matsara is sometimes translated as “miserliness” or “avarice.” It is classified as one of the twenty subsidiary afflictions (upakleśa).
The thirty-two marks manifested by a “great being” (mahāpuruṣa). As “great beings,” all buddhas are said to display them.
The two views of (1) eternalism (śāśvatānta), the belief in a permanent, causeless creator and/or the belief in an independent, permanent, singular self; and (2) nihilism (ucchedānta), the belief that things ultimately do not exist and/or the denial of the law of cause and effect or of past and future lives.
A voice that has the qualities of the voice of the god Brahmā. This is one of the thirty-two marks of a buddha.
The Gṛdhrakūṭa, literally Vulture Peak, was a hill located in the kingdom of Magadha, in the vicinity of the ancient city of Rājagṛha (modern-day Rajgir, in the state of Bihar, India), where the Buddha bestowed many sūtras, especially the Great Vehicle teachings, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras. It continues to be a sacred pilgrimage site for Buddhists to this day.
seng ges zhus pa (Siṃhaparipṛcchā). Toh 81, Degé Kangyur vol. 44 (dkon brtsegs, cha), folios 27.a–29.b.
seng ges zhus pa. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–9, vol. 44, pp. 72–81.
seng ges zhus pa. Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 40 (dkon brtsegs, cha), folios 71.a–74.b.
IOL Tib J 201. British Library, London. Accessed through The International Dunhuang Project: The Silk Road Online.
IOL Tib J 202. British Library, London. Accessed through The International Dunhuang Project: The Silk Road Online.
Śāntideva. bslab pa kun las btus pa (Śikṣāsamuccaya). Toh 3940, Degé Tengyur vol. 213 (dbu ma, khi), folios 3.a–194.b.
Könchok Lhündrup (dkon mchog lhun grub) and Sangyé Phuntsok (sangs rgyas phun tshogs). “dam pa’i chos kyi byung tshul bstan pa’i rgya mtshor ’jug pa’i gru chen dang de’i rtsom ’phro kha skong legs bshad nor bu’i bang mdzod.” In sa skya’i chos ’byung gces bsdus, 4:1–253. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2009. BDRC W1PD90704.
Künga Sangpo (kun dga’ bzang po). “spring yig slob ma la phan pa.” In ngor chen kun dga’ bzang po’i bka’ ’bum (The Complete Works of Ngor-chen Kun-dga’-bzang-po), 4:619–60 (folios 310.a–330.b). Dehradun: Sakya Center, 199?. BDRC W11577.
“Siṃhaparipṛcchāmahāyānasūtra.” In A Unique Collection of Twenty Sūtras in a Sanskrit Manuscript from the Potala. Sanskrit Texts from the Tibetan Autonomous Region 7/1, vol. I,2, pp. 453–520. A critical edition of the Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan with an English translation edited and translated by Bhikṣuṇī Vinītā. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2010.
Siṃhaparipṛcchāmahāyānasūtra (大寶積經, 阿闍世王子會, “Ratnakūṭa-sūtra, the Meeting with the Son of King Ajātaśatru”). Taishō 310. Accessed May 31, 2018.
Siṃhaparipṛcchānāmamahāyānasūtra (佛説太子刷護經). Taishō 343. Accessed May 31, 2018.
Siṃhaparipṛcchānāmamahāyānasūtra (佛説太子和休經). Taishō 344. Accessed May 31, 2018.
Śāntideva. Śikṣāsamuccaya. In Śikṣāsamuccaya of Śāntideva, edited by P. L. Vaidya. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts 11. Darbhanga: Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies and Research in Sanskrit Learning, 1960. English translation in Goodman, Charles. The Training Anthology of Śāntideva: A Translation of the Śikṣā-samuccaya. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.
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Conze, Edward. Buddhist Scriptures. Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1959.
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Pedersen, K. Priscilla. “Notes on the Ratnakūṭa Collection.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 3, no. 2 (1980): 60–66.
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Vinītā, Bhikṣuṇī, ed. and trans. A unique collection of twenty Sūtras in a Sanskrit manuscript from the Potala. Sanskrit Texts from the Tibetan Autonomous Region 7/1, vol. I,2, Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House; Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2010.
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D Degé (sde dge) Kangyur
H Lhasa (zhol) Kangyur
K Kangxi (Peking late 17th century) Kangyur
N Narthang (snar thang) Kangyur
S Stok Palace (stog pho brang bris ma) Kangyur
Sanskrit Sanskrit manuscript found in the Potala Palace (see introduction and bibliography)
Taishō 310 8th century Chinese translation by Bodhiruci (菩提流志), Taishō 310 (37)
Taishō 343 3rd century Chinese translation by Dharmarakṣa (竺法護)
Taishō 344 An early Chinese translation by unknown translators
Y Yongle (g.yung lo) Kangyur
Śikṣ Sanskrit text of Śikṣāsamuccaya by Śāntideva
At the opening of this sūtra, King Ajātaśatru’s son Siṃha and his five hundred attendants approach the Buddha, who is on Vulture Peak. After paying homage and offering golden parasols, Siṃha asks the Buddha a series of questions about the conduct of bodhisattvas. The Buddha answers each of Siṃha’s questions with a series of verses describing the various karmic causes that result in the qualities and attributes of bodhisattvas. Afterward, when Siṃha and his attendants promise to train in this teaching, the Buddha smiles, causing the three-thousandfold world system to quake. When the bodhisattva Ajita asks the Buddha why he smiled, the Buddha explains that Siṃha and all of his companions will become buddhas and establish buddhafields similar to that of Amitābha.
This sūtra was translated by the Kīrtimukha Translation Group in Boulder, Colorado. Celso Wilkinson, Laura Goetz, and L. S. Summer translated the text from the Tibetan and Sanskrit. Thank you to William Giddings for serving as consultant for inquiries related to the Chinese versions of the text. Also, thank you to Tsultrim Delek for answering some of our questions regarding the Tibetan.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Siṃha’s Questions is listed as the thirty-seventh chapter of the Ratnakūṭa (Heap of Jewels) section of the Kangyur and was translated into Tibetan from an unknown Sanskrit source in the early ninth century by the Indian scholars Dānaśīla and Munivarman and the Tibetan translator and chief editor Yeshé Dé. It is listed in both ninth-century imperial catalogs, the Denkarma and Phangthangma.
There are three versions of the text found in the Chinese Tripiṭaka. The translator of Taishō 344, the first and likely earliest version of the sūtra, is unknown. Taishō 343 was translated by Dharmarakṣa (zhu fa hu 竺法護) during the Jing Dynasty, around 200–300
Any Sanskrit original was thought to be lost until recently, when a Sanskrit manuscript of Siṃha’s Questions, along with nineteen other sūtras, was found in the Potala Palace in Lhasa. Bhikṣuṇī Vinītā published a critical edition of this collection in the series Sanskrit Texts from the Autonomous Region (2010) along with an emended edition of the Sanskrit, parallel editions of the Tibetan and Chinese, an English translation based on the Sanskrit, and reference to other Tibetan and Chinese recensions in the notes. Unfortunately, due to the manuscript’s inaccessibility and the collection missing a final colophon, its origin and date are currently unknown.
The sūtra is not particularly well known, but verses of it are quoted in a few Indian commentaries, including Śāntideva’s training anthology, the Śikṣāsamuccaya. It is also quoted in some Tibetan commentaries, usually in the context of using the Buddha’s words to verify that a certain virtuous practice is the concordant cause for developing a particular positive result or quality.
Siṃha’s Questions presents the practices of bodhisattvas through a question-and-answer dialogue between the Buddha and Prince Siṃha, the son of King Ajātaśatru of Magadha. At the beginning of the sūtra, Siṃha and five hundred of his attendants approach the Buddha and supplicate him, each offering a golden parasol. Feeling confident, Siṃha asks the Buddha a series of questions about the conduct of bodhisattvas concerning how one attains the various sublime qualities and attributes possessed by bodhisattvas and by the Buddha himself. The Buddha then directly answers each question, listing the practice or virtuous conduct that acts as the concordant cause for acquiring each particular quality. The dialogue thereby becomes an elementary teaching on virtuous causes and results, encompassing a broad range of attainments and how they are accomplished through the proper virtuous activity.
The dialogue between Siṃha and the Buddha seems to keep a wide audience in mind, discussing matters that could potentially appeal to a layperson’s worldly interests, such as acquiring wealth, beauty, power, and loyal servants. However, the primary focus of Siṃha’s series of questions remains how to correctly follow the practices of bodhisattvas and attain the final goal of becoming a buddha. Even when his questions are concerned with how to attain wealth and power, they can be understood to be relevant to a bodhisattva’s career (to attract followers, etc.), and we can surmise that Siṃha’s interest in them is for the benefit of others.
At the conclusion of the sūtra, Siṃha and his attendants promise to follow this teaching. The Buddha is pleased and gives them an extraordinary prophecy: Siṃha and all five hundred attendants will become buddhas and will, three hundred eons after the emanation of Maitreya, in an eon called Great Illumination, establish buddhafields “like that of Amitābha.”
Prince Siṃha himself is an elusive figure in Buddhist literature. While his father, King Ajātaśatru, is quite famous in the sūtras, any mention of this particular Siṃha seems to be unique to this sūtra. King Ajātaśatru’s other son and eventual successor, Udayabhadra, is much better known in the histories and literature, but from our research there does not seem to be any connection between these two princes, nor mention of Siṃha, outside of this sūtra.
Our translation is based primarily on the Tibetan found in the Degé Kangyur, with reference to all the recensions found in the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) and Stok Palace Kangyurs. Any significant differences in meaning between these versions have been documented in the notes. We also consulted fragments of the text found in the collection from Dunhuang, but these did not show any notable differences.
The Sanskrit manuscript from the Potala was closely consulted, as were the Sanskrit verses quoted in the Śikṣāsamuccaya. The Sanskrit witnesses have been favored in some instances where they present a clearer reading than the Tibetan, particularly when these differences were verified by the Chinese translations. In this regard, Vinītā’s critical edition was an invaluable source, as we consulted it for the Sanskrit as well as for its comparative editions of the Tibetan and Chinese. In cases where we have referred to the Chinese, we have given preference to Bodhiruci’s translation, as it was a revision made with knowledge of the previous Chinese versions, and it also corresponds most closely with the Sanskrit manuscript. Any significant differences in meaning found in the Sanskrit and Chinese have been documented in the notes.
Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was dwelling in Rājagṛha on Vulture Peak, together with a great saṅgha of 1,250 monks and a great saṅgha of bodhisattvas.
When this Dharma presentation was taught, eight hundred million beings set out for supreme awakening. When the Blessed One had spoken, Siṃha, along with his companions and the world with its gods, humans, asuras, and gandharvas, rejoiced and praised the words of the Blessed One.
This concludes the thirty-seventh chapter, “Siṃha’s Questions,” from the eleven hundred chapters of the Dharma presentation of The Noble Great Heap of Jewels.
The Indian preceptors Dānaśīla and Munivarman and the chief editor-translator Bandé Yeshé Dé translated, edited, and finalized this according to the new lexical register.
At the opening of this sūtra, King Ajātaśatru’s son Siṃha and his five hundred attendants approach the Buddha, who is on Vulture Peak. After paying homage and offering golden parasols, Siṃha asks the Buddha a series of questions about the conduct of bodhisattvas. The Buddha answers each of Siṃha’s questions with a series of verses describing the various karmic causes that result in the qualities and attributes of bodhisattvas. Afterward, when Siṃha and his attendants promise to train in this teaching, the Buddha smiles, causing the three-thousandfold world system to quake. When the bodhisattva Ajita asks the Buddha why he smiled, the Buddha explains that Siṃha and all of his companions will become buddhas and establish buddhafields similar to that of Amitābha.
This sūtra was translated by the Kīrtimukha Translation Group in Boulder, Colorado. Celso Wilkinson, Laura Goetz, and L. S. Summer translated the text from the Tibetan and Sanskrit. Thank you to William Giddings for serving as consultant for inquiries related to the Chinese versions of the text. Also, thank you to Tsultrim Delek for answering some of our questions regarding the Tibetan.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Siṃha’s Questions is listed as the thirty-seventh chapter of the Ratnakūṭa (Heap of Jewels) section of the Kangyur and was translated into Tibetan from an unknown Sanskrit source in the early ninth century by the Indian scholars Dānaśīla and Munivarman and the Tibetan translator and chief editor Yeshé Dé. It is listed in both ninth-century imperial catalogs, the Denkarma and Phangthangma.
There are three versions of the text found in the Chinese Tripiṭaka. The translator of Taishō 344, the first and likely earliest version of the sūtra, is unknown. Taishō 343 was translated by Dharmarakṣa (zhu fa hu 竺法護) during the Jing Dynasty, around 200–300
Any Sanskrit original was thought to be lost until recently, when a Sanskrit manuscript of Siṃha’s Questions, along with nineteen other sūtras, was found in the Potala Palace in Lhasa. Bhikṣuṇī Vinītā published a critical edition of this collection in the series Sanskrit Texts from the Autonomous Region (2010) along with an emended edition of the Sanskrit, parallel editions of the Tibetan and Chinese, an English translation based on the Sanskrit, and reference to other Tibetan and Chinese recensions in the notes. Unfortunately, due to the manuscript’s inaccessibility and the collection missing a final colophon, its origin and date are currently unknown.
The sūtra is not particularly well known, but verses of it are quoted in a few Indian commentaries, including Śāntideva’s training anthology, the Śikṣāsamuccaya. It is also quoted in some Tibetan commentaries, usually in the context of using the Buddha’s words to verify that a certain virtuous practice is the concordant cause for developing a particular positive result or quality.
Siṃha’s Questions presents the practices of bodhisattvas through a question-and-answer dialogue between the Buddha and Prince Siṃha, the son of King Ajātaśatru of Magadha. At the beginning of the sūtra, Siṃha and five hundred of his attendants approach the Buddha and supplicate him, each offering a golden parasol. Feeling confident, Siṃha asks the Buddha a series of questions about the conduct of bodhisattvas concerning how one attains the various sublime qualities and attributes possessed by bodhisattvas and by the Buddha himself. The Buddha then directly answers each question, listing the practice or virtuous conduct that acts as the concordant cause for acquiring each particular quality. The dialogue thereby becomes an elementary teaching on virtuous causes and results, encompassing a broad range of attainments and how they are accomplished through the proper virtuous activity.
The dialogue between Siṃha and the Buddha seems to keep a wide audience in mind, discussing matters that could potentially appeal to a layperson’s worldly interests, such as acquiring wealth, beauty, power, and loyal servants. However, the primary focus of Siṃha’s series of questions remains how to correctly follow the practices of bodhisattvas and attain the final goal of becoming a buddha. Even when his questions are concerned with how to attain wealth and power, they can be understood to be relevant to a bodhisattva’s career (to attract followers, etc.), and we can surmise that Siṃha’s interest in them is for the benefit of others.
At the conclusion of the sūtra, Siṃha and his attendants promise to follow this teaching. The Buddha is pleased and gives them an extraordinary prophecy: Siṃha and all five hundred attendants will become buddhas and will, three hundred eons after the emanation of Maitreya, in an eon called Great Illumination, establish buddhafields “like that of Amitābha.”
Prince Siṃha himself is an elusive figure in Buddhist literature. While his father, King Ajātaśatru, is quite famous in the sūtras, any mention of this particular Siṃha seems to be unique to this sūtra. King Ajātaśatru’s other son and eventual successor, Udayabhadra, is much better known in the histories and literature, but from our research there does not seem to be any connection between these two princes, nor mention of Siṃha, outside of this sūtra.
Our translation is based primarily on the Tibetan found in the Degé Kangyur, with reference to all the recensions found in the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) and Stok Palace Kangyurs. Any significant differences in meaning between these versions have been documented in the notes. We also consulted fragments of the text found in the collection from Dunhuang, but these did not show any notable differences.
The Sanskrit manuscript from the Potala was closely consulted, as were the Sanskrit verses quoted in the Śikṣāsamuccaya. The Sanskrit witnesses have been favored in some instances where they present a clearer reading than the Tibetan, particularly when these differences were verified by the Chinese translations. In this regard, Vinītā’s critical edition was an invaluable source, as we consulted it for the Sanskrit as well as for its comparative editions of the Tibetan and Chinese. In cases where we have referred to the Chinese, we have given preference to Bodhiruci’s translation, as it was a revision made with knowledge of the previous Chinese versions, and it also corresponds most closely with the Sanskrit manuscript. Any significant differences in meaning found in the Sanskrit and Chinese have been documented in the notes.
Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas!
Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was dwelling in Rājagṛha on Vulture Peak, together with a great saṅgha of 1,250 monks and a great saṅgha of bodhisattvas.
When this Dharma presentation was taught, eight hundred million beings set out for supreme awakening. When the Blessed One had spoken, Siṃha, along with his companions and the world with its gods, humans, asuras, and gandharvas, rejoiced and praised the words of the Blessed One.
This concludes the thirty-seventh chapter, “Siṃha’s Questions,” from the eleven hundred chapters of the Dharma presentation of The Noble Great Heap of Jewels.
The Indian preceptors Dānaśīla and Munivarman and the chief editor-translator Bandé Yeshé Dé translated, edited, and finalized this according to the new lexical register.